A history of China., [3d ed. rev. and enl.]

In Short

This book offers a scholarly, analytical survey of Chinese history, beginning with pre-literate cultures and concluding with the mid-twentieth-century Communist revolution. Rather than focusing exclusively on imperial successions or military feats, it prioritizes the underlying "gentry" social system—the landed families, bureaucrats, and cliques that defined China's stability for centuries. By examining economic shifts, such as the evolution of currency and land ownership, it provides a structural explanation for how the Chinese state managed its vast population and its porous frontiers. It has remained a standard reference for decades because it avoids mere narration, choosing instead to explain the persistent social and economic mechanics that shaped the Chinese experience across thousands of years.

The Story

The narrative begins in the misty reaches of prehistory, where agrarian cultures in the Shansi region first developed bronze and pottery. By the time of the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1028 B.C.), a high civilization had emerged, marked by urban centers and the first traces of writing. The subsequent Chou dynasty introduced a feudal framework, creating a complex hierarchy of power that stretched from the imperial center to the loosely controlled periphery. Over time, these feudal states grew independent and eventually collapsed into the chaos of the "Contending States" period, from which the short-lived but foundational Chin dynasty emerged to force a centralized, unitary state upon the region.

The Han dynasty followed, marking a crucial turning point where the "gentry-state" solidified. This period saw the permanent integration of South China and a complex, often fraught relationship with the Hsiung-nu nomads of the north. As the Han eventually succumbed to internal clique struggles and the rise of the "Yellow Turbans" rebellion, China entered a long era of division. During these three and a half centuries (220–580 A.D.), northern China was repeatedly transformed by non-Chinese dynasties, such as the Toba and the Huns, while the south remained a patchwork of competing Chinese families.

The reunification of China brought the T'ang dynasty to power, a period of unprecedented administrative growth where military governors began to rival the central government. This expansion eventually fractured, leading to the rise of independent satraps and the dynasty’s eventual collapse under the weight of foreign influence and economic strain. The subsequent "Second Division" of China gave way to the Sung dynasty, a period of intense cultural achievement and economic innovation—including the emergence of paper money and industrial production—yet also one of crippling inflation and military vulnerability.

The Mongol conquest brought an abrupt end to the Sung, but the resulting Ming dynasty eventually reasserted Chinese nationalism and expanded influence into Central Asia. As the Ming era gave way to the Manchu (Ch'ing) dynasty, the empire reached new territorial heights, managing a vast, multi-ethnic borderland. However, the rise of modern nationalism, the encroachment of foreign powers, and the internal struggle between tradition and reform led to the final collapse of the imperial system in 1912. The narrative closes with the rise of the Republic and the subsequent Communist takeover, framing these modern events as a continuation of the same enduring, hard-working, and resilient social patterns that had characterized the Chinese farmer and the bureaucratic elite for millennia.

How It Unfolds

The dawn of civilization The account opens in the remote past, identifying the agrarian foundations of early cultures in Shansi and the subsequent rise of the Shang as a high-organized, bronze-using society. It establishes the central tension between the settled, town-dwelling Chinese and the nomadic influences that would constantly press against their borders.

The age of feudalism and transition The narrative moves into the Chou and the era of the "Contending States," where the rigid feudal hierarchy dissolves under the pressure of new military and economic realities. It tracks the shift from ritualized feudal loyalty to the pragmatic, centralized authority of the Chin and Han, who created the template for the bureaucratic gentry-state.

Dynastic rise and internal friction The book tracks the recurring cycle of imperial stability and decay, demonstrating how cliques of gentry families formed alliances through marriage and office-holding. It shows that dynasties often fell not due to external invasion alone, but because these powerful cliques, coupled with eunuch influence, paralyzed the throne and alienated the peasantry.

The impact of the frontier Throughout the middle and modern sections, the author explores the constant flux of northern nomads and their influence on the Chinese state. It illustrates how dynasties like the Toba or the Mongols were either assimilated by the superior culture of the Chinese gentry or eventually driven out by a rising tide of nationalistic resistance.

The shift to the modern world The final section examines the disintegration of the Ch'ing dynasty under the combined pressure of internal rebellion and international diplomacy. It describes the transition to a modern state, analyzing the early 20th-century republican struggles and the subsequent rise of the Communist regime as a new form of management for the enduring Chinese social machine.

The People

The figures in this history are rarely presented as individuals in a vacuum; they are instead conduits for the power of their families and cliques. Liu Yuean, a leader of the Huns, stands out as a transitional figure who attempted to organize a nomad state using Chinese administrative models, reflecting the constant push-and-pull between ethnic traditions and the allure of Chinese statecraft. Shih Lo, by contrast, serves as the archetype of the fierce nomad leader who rejected Chinese methods in favor of old-fashioned raiding, illustrating the resistance to sinification.

In the Ming period, Liu Chin serves as a stark warning of the dangers of unchecked eunuch power, accumulating a personal fortune that dwarfed the entire state budget and showing how a single corrupt clique could paralyze an empire. Later, in the 19th century, Tso Tsung-t'ang emerges as the quintessential military commander of a weakening empire, successfully reasserting control over Turkestan while navigating the treacherous diplomatic waters between Russia and Britain. Finally, figures like Yuean Shih-k'ai embody the tragic contradiction of the early 20th century: a man who commanded the most effective modern troops yet remained bound to the old, conservative dream of restoring a Gentry-led imperial house, ultimately finding himself unable to govern the new, radicalized China.

In Its Own Voice

"The Shang civilization, an evident off-shoot of the Lung-shan culture (Tai, Yao, and Tunguses), but also with elements of the Hsia culture (with Tibetan and Mongol and/or Turkish elements), was beyond doubt a high civilization."

(The author provides this context while discussing the origins and cultural makeup of the Shang dynasty.)

"In the dogma of the Chinese religion of Heaven, all the countries of the world were subject to the Chinese emperor, the Son of Heaven."

(This sentence appears as the author explains the Chinese conception of frontiers and the unique nature of their relationship with neighboring territories.)

"The gentry society was, therefore, a comparably stable society with little upward social mobility but with some downward mobility."

(The author writes this as part of a detailed analysis of how gentry families maintained their power and influence over generations.)

What It's Really About

At its core, this book argues that Chinese history is a story of a persistent social order defined by the "gentry." Unlike Western systems, where elites often failed to replenish their ranks, the Chinese gentry maintained a stable, self-perpetuating system through marriage alliances, education, and bureaucratic control. The central question is not merely who sat on the throne, but how this gentry class managed to survive the rise and fall of dozens of dynasties. The book explores the tension between the "agrarian" nature of the Chinese state and the constant, destabilizing presence of nomadic neighbors. It suggests that while the names of the emperors and the ruling dynasties changed, the underlying social and administrative engine—driven by land ownership, intense population pressure, and the need to manage a vast, diverse frontier—remained remarkably consistent for over two millennia.

Why Read It Today

This book is intended for the reader who wants to understand the mechanics of China rather than the mere mythology of its emperors. It is an exacting, structuralist work that rewards those who prefer a socioeconomic analysis over romanticized storytelling. Readers who appreciate historical depth will find the author’s persistent focus on the "gentry-state" and his nuanced view of nomadic interactions to be highly illuminating, as it strips away the exoticism often applied to Asian history in favor of clear, class-based analysis.

However, the reader should be prepared for a dense, academic style. The book is not a fast-paced narrative; it is a serious scholarly survey that assumes a level of patience from its audience. Because it was written and revised in the mid-20th century, some of the terminology and the geopolitical perspective reflect the scholarly atmosphere of that time, particularly regarding the early Communist era. The text requires careful attention to detail, as it frequently jumps between administrative, military, and economic developments. Yet, for those interested in the long-term patterns of civilization, the effort is well-rewarded. What stays with the reader is a realization of the staggering continuity of the Chinese state. Despite centuries of internal clique warfare, foreign invasions, and economic upheaval, the underlying social fabric—the bureaucracy, the landed elite, and the disciplined, hard-working nature of the Chinese peasantry—remained the essential foundation that propelled the nation forward. It is a sobering, precise, and deeply informative look at the forces that define a civilization.