Agriculture in Virginia, 1607-1699

In Short

This historical account chronicles the evolution of farming in seventeenth-century Virginia, tracing the transition from the failed agricultural experiments of the Jamestown settlers to the establishment of a robust, tobacco-centered economy. By examining the clash between European farming methods and the practical, localized knowledge of the indigenous population, the text reveals how the necessity of feeding a starving colony eventually birthed the independent American farmer. It remains a foundational text for understanding how the basic, daily struggle to cultivate the soil shaped the economic and social structures of the early frontier.

The Story

When the London Company first financed the settlement at Jamestown in 1607, agriculture was treated as a secondary concern. The men who arrived were not farmers; they were adventurers motivated by the allure of gold and the romanticized, often false, narratives of easy wealth circulating in Europe. England was an island nation finally looking outward, but its settlers brought with them an agricultural tradition suited for a temperate, cleared, and long-farmed landscape. They possessed no understanding of the dense, uncleared forests of the Chesapeake, nor of the labor required to break ground that had never known a plow.

The early years were defined by failure. Attempting to implement broadcast seeding of English grains—wheat, rye, and barley—the colonists repeatedly watched their efforts come to nothing. They struggled against the physical reality of a land filled with interlocking roots and stumps, exacerbated by a lack of iron tools and a reliance on a communal storehouse system that invited indolence. The "starving time" of 1609-1610 brought the colony to the brink of extinction. It was only when the settlers abandoned their rigid adherence to Old World methods and began to learn from the indigenous people that the tide began to turn.

The indigenous agricultural system, which relied on hill planting rather than broad-cast seeding, proved far more suited to the environment. The colonists observed how the local tribes managed their crops, using small, efficient tools and maintaining soil health through manual weeding and precise placement. As the settlers began to adopt these techniques and, crucially, as they began to move away from communal living toward the concept of private land ownership, they found their footing.

The introduction of tobacco as a cash crop acted as a catalyst for this shift. While the authorities in England initially discouraged the colonists from neglecting other ventures like silk, wine, and hemp, the profitability of tobacco was undeniable. It quickly became the colony's primary medium of exchange, functioning as money for debts and salaries. This economic focus drove the expansion of the colony, though it also brought the challenge of soil exhaustion, which forced the farmers to clear more land and, inadvertently, to cultivate more diverse crops on depleted fields. By the end of the century, the settlement had moved from a state of total dependence on English imports to self-sufficiency, characterized by thriving herds of livestock and a stable, albeit struggling, class of independent landowners.

How It Unfolds

The arrival of misplaced ambition The first settlers arrive with visions of gold and trade, viewing the land as a staging ground for riches rather than a place to plant crops. Their lack of experience and reliance on English grains, which require cleared, stump-free fields, lead to immediate, disastrous failures.

The starving time and local wisdom As famine strikes, the settlers are forced to humble themselves and observe the agricultural practices of the local tribes. By adopting the "hill planting" method and learning to work with the specific soil and climate of the region, they gain the skills necessary to produce actual sustenance.

The imposition of order The arrival of Sir Thomas Dale brings a period of strict military discipline, forcing the indolent population to labor in the fields. This harsh phase results in the construction of permanent structures and the strategic seizing of fertile land, such as the Appomattox territory, to ensure consistent food production.

Tobacco as the engine of growth Tobacco culture transforms the colony, providing a lucrative export that stabilizes the economy and creates a functional medium of exchange. The reliance on this single crop dictates the patterns of settlement, leading to a constant demand for new land as the soil is quickly exhausted.

The legacy of the independent farmer By the late 1600s, the colony has successfully integrated animal husbandry and diverse crops into its life. The enduring shift—from communal dependence to individual land ownership—solidifies the character of the American farmer and ensures the colony’s survival.

The People

The narrative is driven more by the collective behavior of the colonists than by a single protagonist, but a few individuals embody the era’s transitions. William Spence stands out as the first true English farmer in the colony. By operating his own plantation outside the protection of the fortified settlement, he defies the London Company’s insistence on communal living, effectively modeling the self-reliant, land-owning future of American agriculture. Sir Thomas Dale represents the harsh, iron-fisted authority required to transition the settlers from "habits of indolence" to productive labor. He is a taskmaster who, while unpopular, forces the colony to construct the infrastructure necessary for long-term survival. The local indigenous people function as the silent, essential teachers of the narrative; their methods of hill planting and their use of the land provide the only viable framework for the survival of the English newcomers. These figures collectively move the colony from a state of chaotic, imported European expectations to a localized, pragmatic reality where the individual’s ownership of their labor becomes the cornerstone of a new society.

In Its Own Voice

"The men of the first expedition were not farmers and took little interest in farming."

This observation sets the stage for the initial, catastrophic failure of the colony to provide for its own food supply.

"The colonists were ready to try something else."

This transition marks the critical, desperate moment when the settlers finally abandoned their English prejudices to adopt the farming techniques of the indigenous tribes.

"The first experienced English farmer to come to the colony was William Spence, who arrived on the Phoenix, April 20, 1608."

This marks the introduction of the individual who would eventually bridge the gap between English traditions and the American frontier.

What It's Really About

The text serves as a case study in environmental adaptation. Its primary argument is that a civilization cannot be transplanted wholesale; it must be modified to fit the physical constraints of its new home. The book explores the tension between top-down colonial management—which preferred controlled, centralized commerce—and the decentralized, bottom-up reality of individual farmers seeking property. Underpinning this is the question of how an economic system, in this case tobacco, shapes social development. The book argues that the necessity of clearing and exhausting land, combined with the desire for independent ownership, created a restless, expanding, and self-sufficient culture that was fundamentally distinct from the rigid, feudal structures of the Old World.

Why Read It Today

Readers interested in the granular, often overlooked details of history will find this account rewarding. It strips away the myth of the "gentleman adventurer" and replaces it with the reality of the grubby, persistent, and often brutal work of clearing forests and tending crops. The narrative is refreshingly devoid of romanticism, focusing instead on the practical mechanics of survival—the types of plows used, the failure of silk production, and the surprising importance of the hog to the colonial diet.

The prose is straightforward and precise, though it assumes a reader interested in agricultural history; those looking for a dramatic, character-driven story may find the technical descriptions of crop cycles and soil management a bit dry. It is a work that values evidence over sentiment, and its reliance on primary records gives it a grounded, authentic feel. You will leave this book with a deeper understanding of the American landscape not as a pristine wilderness, but as a space that was fundamentally rewritten by the collision of two very different ways of life. It serves as a reminder that the bedrock of any nation's history is found in the dirt, the fences, and the daily, often grueling labor of those who work the land.