Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley: Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. I

In Short

Published in 1848 as the inaugural volume of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, this groundbreaking work presents the first systematic, scientific investigation of the earthworks and mounds scattered across the Mississippi and Ohio river valleys. Authors Ephraim George Squier and Edwin Hamilton Davis map hundreds of vast geometric enclosures, defensive hill forts, and temple mounds, cataloging their architectural precision and excavating their internal structures. Beyond mapping, the authors meticulously analyze recovered artifacts—copper axes, intricate pipes, polished slate, and carved marine shells—to understand the builders' domestic life, trade networks, and religious ceremonies. This seminal text endured because it shifted American archaeology from speculative fantasy to rigorous empirical science, laying the foundation for modern North American ethnology.

The Story

The volume opens by contextualizing the mysterious landscape encountered by early American settlers moving west of the Alleghanies. While initial Spanish and French explorers largely overlooked these structures, expanding trade and settlement revealed a dense network of massive earthworks throughout the Mississippi Valley. Early visitors published scattered notes, but Squier and Davis set out to replace anecdotal travel writing with precise engineering surveys, physical measurements, and systematic excavation.

The authors begin by categorizing the earthworks into two main functional divisions: enclosures and mounds. Enclosures are further divided into defensive structures and sacred sites. Defensive works are consistently found on high, naturally fortified bluffs, exploiting river bends and steep ravines, reinforced by thick earthen embankments and deep exterior ditches. In contrast, sacred enclosures sit on flat river terraces. These non-defensive works display astonishing geometric regularity—predominantly exact squares, circles, ellipses, and octagons—often connected by long parallel avenues of earth. Squier and Davis record that multiple square enclosures across the Scioto valley share identical dimensions of exactly 1,080 feet per side, proving that the ancient builders possessed standardized units of measurement and sophisticated methods for laying out true right angles and precise geometry.

Moving beyond mere enclosures, the survey turns to the strange animal effigy mounds of the Northwest and Ohio. The authors map colossal earthworks shaped like reptiles, birds, and beasts, including the famous "Alligator" near Granville and the giant serpent mounds. They argue these effigies were not defensive or residential, but tied to deep religious symbolism and sacred rituals, noting parallels between the rattlesnake iconography of these mounds and the religious symbols of Mesoamerican cultures like the Aztecs.

The narrative shifts underground as the authors record their excavations into the mounds themselves. Squier and Davis classify these mounds by their internal contents into sepulchral mounds, altars or sacrificial mounds, and mounds of observation. Sepulchral mounds cover central timber or bark chambers containing human skeletons, personal ornaments, and weapons. Sacrificial mounds feature baked clay altars at their base, showing intense heat and repeated fire use. On these altars, the authors uncover copper implements, fine stone axes, mica plates, and charred carbonaceous deposits left by offerings. In several instances, they observe that old altars were burned, covered, and then recast with new clay layers over time, demonstrating long-term ceremonial use.

Finally, the study examines the material culture and physical remains of the Mound Builders. The authors analyze an extensive array of manufactured relics: copper adzes and hand-axes, shell and bone beads, talcose slate ornaments, and remarkably realistic stone pipes carved into the shapes of native wildlife and tropical animals like the lamantin, or sea-cow. By examining the geographic distribution of these materials—obsidian, Gulf Coast sea shells, Lake Superior copper, and tropical carvings—the authors demonstrate that this ancient society maintained vast trade networks spanning the continent. The work concludes with an anatomical evaluation of recovered crania, comparing their measurements against other global and native populations to establish the distinct physical identity and high cultural achievements of the mound-building civilization.

How It Unfolds

The survey begins The authors outline the history of early observations in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, noting how casual accounts by early explorers gave way to the need for systematic scientific mapping of the region's vast ancient ruins.

Defending the heights Squier and Davis document massive hilltop fortifications located on steep peninsular bluffs, detailing heavy earthen walls, exterior ditches, and strategic gateways designed to protect against military invasion.

Sacred geometry on the plains The authors examine vast circular, square, and octagonal enclosures built on smooth river terraces, discovering that many separated enclosures share identical dimensions and precise geometric alignments.

Effigies of beast and serpent The investigation turns to giant earthworks constructed in the shapes of animals, such as the Granville Alligator and Greek cross mounds, analyzing their potential astronomical and mythological significance.

Uncovering the altars Through careful excavation, the authors penetrate the interior of sacrificial mounds, uncovering hardened, multi-layered clay basins that bear clear marks of intense fire and ceremonial offerings.

Tombs of the ancient dead The focus moves to sepulchral mounds, detailing the discovery of primary burials enclosed in timber or matting, accompanied by stone tools, copper implements, and personal adornments.

Crafts of stone and copper The text cataloging recovered artifacts highlights the remarkable skill of the builders, analyzing imperforate stone axes, carved slate ornaments, copper adzes, and polished ceremonial tools.

Images carved from life The authors evaluate exquisitely carved stone pipes depicting native mammals, birds, and tropical species like the sea-cow, proving both artistic mastery and wide-ranging geographic knowledge.

Continental trade networks By identifying raw materials such as marine shells from the Gulf coast, copper from northern mines, and exotic minerals, the authors demonstrate the existence of extensive ancient trade routes.

Physical remains and skulls The volume concludes with a comparative craniometrical study of recovered human skulls, evaluating facial angles and internal brain capacity to determine the distinct physical characteristics of the ancient builders.

The People

Because this volume is a pioneer work of archaeological non-fiction, its "characters" are the dedicated researchers conducting the fieldwork, the early historical accounts they evaluate, and the ancient people whose culture they reconstruct from the dirt.

• E. G. Squier and E. H. Davis: The primary authors and field investigators. Driven by a desire for empirical truth, they spend years surveying, measuring, and excavating earthworks across the Midwest. They push past popular romantic speculation, demanding physical evidence, geometric precision, and hard stratigraphic data to understand the past.
• James McBride, Dr. S. P. Hildreth, and Rev. R. Morris: Local surveyors and scholars who contribute detailed field notes, maps, and descriptions of complex earthwork sites in Ohio, Mississippi, and surrounding territories, expanding the geographic scope of the survey.
• James Smithson: The English benefactor whose legacy created the Smithsonian Institution. His vision to found an establishment for the "increase and diffusion of knowledge among men" provides the institutional funding and purpose that makes this monumental publication possible.
• The Mound Builders: The unnamed ancient agricultural civilization whose labor created the monuments. Revealed through their engineering feats, sacred geometry, extensive trade items, and artistic carvings, they emerge as a organized, highly skilled society with complex religious traditions and sophisticated technical capabilities.

In Its Own Voice

"EVERY MAN IS A VALUABLE MEMBER OF SOCIETY, WHO, BY HIS OBSERVATIONS, RESEARCHES, AND EXPERIMENTS, PROCURES KNOWLEDGE FOR MEN.—SMITHSON." — The title page epigraph establishing the core mission of scientific inquiry that governs the entire volume.

"The square and the circle often occur in combination, frequently communicating with each other or with irregular works directly, or by avenues consisting of parallel lines of embankment." — A precise description from the text illustrating the complex geometric layout characteristic of the sacred enclosures.

"Upon penetrating the altar to ascertain its thickness, it was found to be burned to the depth of twenty-two inches... It was found that one altar had been built upon another; as if one had been used for a time, until, from defect or other causes, it was abandoned, when another was recast upon it." — The authors' observation during excavation, revealing repeated ceremonial use of mound altars over extended periods.

What It's Really About

At its core, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley is an argument for the intellectual legitimacy of North American prehistory. Writing at a time when European scholars dismissed the New World as lacking deep history, Squier and Davis prove that ancient America was home to complex, highly organized societies capable of monumental engineering and precise scientific calculation.

The book challenges the primitive stereotypes of indigenous history by demonstrating that the earthworks were not random piles of dirt, but carefully planned sacred landscapes and sophisticated military fortifications. Through the rigorous analysis of trade goods—such as tropical sea-cow carvings and ocean shells found hundreds of miles inland—the work argues that pre-Columbian North America was interconnected by vast commercial and cultural networks. Ultimately, the text addresses fundamental questions about human organization, artistic expression, and the rise and fall of ancient civilizations across the American continent.

Why Read It Today

This classic text appeals to history enthusiasts, archaeologists, and anyone fascinated by the ancient mysteries of the North American landscape. Reading it feels like stepping into the shoes of a 19th-century explorer-scientist, combining the excitement of unearthing forgotten ruins with the crisp, intellectual rigor of early scientific documentation.

While modern readers must navigate Victorian academic prose, lengthy technical measurements, and outdated 19th-century ethnological theories regarding cranial measurements, the book's core narrative remains deeply engaging. What stays with you long after reading is the sheer scale of the lost landscape Squier and Davis captured—a world of massive earthen circles, giant serpent effigies, and sacred hilltops that transformed our understanding of North America's deep past.

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