Bernini and other studies in the history of art

In Short

This collection of critical essays re-evaluates major figures and movements in Western sculpture and painting. Focus spent on Gian Lorenzo Bernini, the classical ideals of Pheidias, the expressive power of Michelangelo, and the subtle mastery of Giorgione forms the core of the study. Norton analyzes surviving clay models, architectural sketches, and contested attributions to cut through centuries of critical prejudice. By examining the material conditions, religious shifts, and artistic temperaments that shaped these creators, the work presents art history as a direct window into the human spirit, demonstrating why genuine aesthetic power survives changing fashions.

The Story

The volume opens with a vigorous defense of Gian Lorenzo Bernini, an artist long dismissed by rigid traditionalists as merely "fantastic" or "baroque." Norton traces Bernini's evolution from his precocious youth—marked by mythical marble groups like Apollo and Daphne—to the intense, mystical monuments of his maturity. Through a detailed study of Bernini’s surviving clay models and private sketches, the narrative reveals a master of singular vision. Nowhere is this clearer than in his plans for the Piazza of St. Peter’s, where a sketch overlays the human form of Christ onto the grand colonnade, transforming architectural design into a profound symbol of the Crucifixion. For Bernini, art was an avenue to express spiritual and moral truths, epitomized by his personal, unfinished sculpture Truth Unveiled by Time, which he kept in his home until death.

Shifting from individual biography to broader aesthetic principles, the text examines the fundamental nature of sculpture and portraiture. Norton contrasts the dry realism of Roman portrait busts with the idealizing genius of the Greeks. He establishes the medium’s core boundary: while painting relies on two dimensions and fixed light to capture fleeting facial emotion, sculpture works in three dimensions, depending on physical form and the shifting play of actual light. This theoretical foundation leads directly into a comparative study of Pheidias and Michelangelo. Though both men operated at the heights of their respective eras, their work reflects radically different worldviews. Where Pheidias captured the serene, wholehearted vigour of Greek religion, Michelangelo’s tortured figures reflect the deep spiritual anxiety, scepticism, and physical strain of Renaissance Florence.

The narrative turns to connoisseurship and attribution, focusing on the elusive Venetian master Giorgione. Norton directly challenges the prevailing scientific methodology of Giovanni Morelli and his followers, who sought to identify artists through minor, mechanical details like the shape of fingernails or earlobes. Norton argues that such superficial traits are easily copied by disciples, whereas true attribution demands an understanding of the work's internal spirit, composition, and emotional weight. Examining disputed canvases like the Knight of Malta and the San Rocco Christ, Norton strips away dubious claims to reconstruct a authentic catalog of Giorgione’s oeuvre.

The collection concludes by celebrating Giorgione’s enduring legacy. His art survives not because it served a passing fashion, but because it gives voice to the timeless spirit of youth and human beauty.

How It Unfolds

Reclaiming the Baroque The study opens with a reassessment of Gian Lorenzo Bernini's legacy, challenging past critics who dismissed his work as overly theatrical. By examining his early mythological statues and late religious monuments, the text demonstrates that Bernini operated under a strict internal discipline focused on moral and expressive truth.

Insight in Clay and Ink An investigation of Bernini's surviving terracotta models and private sketchbooks reveals his working process and overarching intellectual vision. A notable sketch for the Piazza of St. Peter's shows the entire architectural layout conceived as the body of Christ on the Cross.

The Mechanics of Mediums The focus broadens to the technical distinctions between painting and sculpture, detailing how each medium conveys meaning. Sculpture relies on three-dimensional volume and changing ambient light, making it best suited for form and action rather than transient facial expressions.

Two Peaks of Sculpture A comparative analysis contrasts the classical calm of Pheidias with the troubled intensity of Michelangelo. The difference in their artistic output is traced to the intellectual and religious climates of ancient Athens and Renaissance Florence.

The Limits of Method The text critiques the mechanical attribution methods popularized by Giovanni Morelli, which relied heavily on minor details like finger-nail shapes. True connoisseurship requires looking past copyable quirks to understand the spiritual and structural integrity of a painting.

The Elusive Venetian A systematic survey of paintings attributed to Giorgione separates genuine masterpieces from shop copies and misattributions. The volume closes by defining Giorgione's unique place in art history as the supreme painter of human warmth and the poetic spirit of youth.

The People

Gian Lorenzo Bernini The central sculptor of the Roman Baroque, Bernini strives to give physical form to intense spiritual devotion and poetic imagination. Standing against critics who brand his work "baroque" or chaotic, he pursues a lifelong devotion to truth, leaving behind grand architectural monuments alongside deeply personal creations like Truth Unveiled by Time.

Pheidias The supreme sculptor of ancient Greece, Pheidias embodies a cultural ideal of clarity, serene vigour, and balance. His work represents a harmonious relationship with the divine, free from the introspective anguish that characterized later eras.

Michelangelo Buonarroti The Renaissance giant whose sculptures and paintings reflect the spiritual turmoil and moral exhaustion of his age. Driven by immense technical power, his struggle lies in reconciling Christian asceticism and Renaissance scepticism with the physical ideal of human beauty.

Giorgione The elusive Venetian painter whose rare, authentic works capture a serene yet vibrant humanity. Standing apart from mere stylistic imitators, he seeks to give visual form to poetic truth, blending spiritual depth with a natural love of physical beauty.

Giovanni Morelli The influential art critic whose rigid, detail-oriented system of attribution serves as the primary foil in the book's final sections. His method relies heavily on cataloging minor anatomical habits, which stands in direct opposition to Norton's holistic evaluation of artistic spirit.

In Its Own Voice

"Are the 'severe laws' of the ancients any more severe than this rule Bernini held before himself and wished his descendants never to forget, and is it sensible because at first sight his work seems strange and unaccountable to damn it with such words as 'fantastic' or 'baroque'?"

In evaluating Bernini's moral devotion to his craft, the text defends his dramatic style against light criticism.

"The fundamental distinction between sculpture and painting lies in the fact that the former concerns itself not always, but primarily, with light and shadow and fully modelled forms, while the latter deals chiefly with colour."

The study lays out the physical realities that dictate how artists must approach two-dimensional canvas versus three-dimensional stone.

"The glory of his work will never fade, for his appeal is to the spirit of youth—that spirit which is compounded of a pure and natural love in all things beautiful..."

The appraisal of Giorgione highlights the qualities that keep his paintings vital across centuries.

What It's Really About

At its core, this volume argues against viewing art through rigid, formulaic lenses. It opposes both the mechanical cataloging of the "attributionists" and the narrow taste of critics who dismiss entire stylistic eras like the Baroque. Norton asserts that style is not an arbitrary choice or a set of technical tricks, but the direct product of an artist's relationship to the life and thought of their era.

The text addresses fundamental questions about artistic expression: How do physical materials constrain or liberate the artist? Why do different historical epochs produce radically different interpretations of the human body? By examining how Bernini, Michelangelo, and Giorgione translated internal convictions into tangible forms, the book demonstrates that true art remains vital because it addresses permanent elements of the human spirit.

Why Read It Today

This book appeals to readers who appreciate thoughtful, unhurried art criticism grounded in close physical observation. It offers a clear, highly readable entry point into the debate over how we evaluate visual art, free from modern jargon or pedantic obscurity. What makes the text refreshing is its willingness to engage directly with the artwork itself—examining clay models, sketchbooks, and brushwork—rather than relying on accepted academic consensus.

Readers should be prepared for the older conventions of early twentieth-century scholarship. The text assumes a general familiarity with classical mythology, Renaissance history, and Christian iconography, and it moves unhurriedly through technical debates on attribution. Its tone reflects the cultured, formal prose of its period, complete with firm opinions and occasional dismissal of rival scholars. Yet these period characteristics only enhance its charm. The book leaves the reader with a heightened eye for detail, a clearer understanding of the boundaries between sculpture and painting, and a deeper appreciation for the creators who shaped European art.