Buddhism, in Its Connexion with Brahmanism and Hinduism, and in Its Contrast with Christianity

In Short

Presented originally as the Duff Lectures in 1888, this work serves as an encyclopedic survey of Buddhism’s historical development, its complex metaphysical underpinnings, and its eventual divergence into disparate schools across India, Tibet, and Burma. The author, a preeminent Sanskrit scholar, meticulously traces the progression from Gautama’s original teachings—rooted in the suppression of desire and the doctrine of "Act-force"—to the later, elaborate hierarchies of Northern "Lāmism." By positioning Buddhist philosophy in direct dialogue with Christian concepts of grace, sin, and redemption, the book offers a sustained, critical argument regarding the nature of human morality. It remains a vital document for understanding how late-Victorian scholarship synthesized oriental history and missionary intent.

The Story

The narrative begins with the intellectual origins of the Buddha, Gautama, who searches for spiritual truth within the established landscape of Brāhmanism. Rejecting the ritualism and the ascetic "Tapas" of his contemporaries, he retreats to the district of Gayā, where he seeks enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree. The book describes this pivotal moment not as a divine revelation, but as a systematic discovery: the understanding that all existence is suffering, caused by the desire for continuity, and that such suffering can only be extinguished by the total suppression of personal will.

As the story moves from the life of the founder to the establishment of the Order, the author details how the original message struggled to maintain its focus. In the absence of a creator god, the "Dharma" or Law became the central object of veneration. However, as the faith expanded under royal patrons like Aṡoka, the movement fragmented. Political revolutions and the rise of the Maurya dynasty provided a backdrop for the formalization of doctrines, leading to the "three councils" where the original scriptures were expanded and debated.

The progression of the faith, as depicted here, is one of constant accretion and, in the author's view, degeneration. The "Small Vehicle" of original Buddhism eventually transformed into the "Great Vehicle" (Mahā-yāna), which incorporated the very polytheism and demonology the Buddha had sought to transcend. The text follows this trajectory into Northern lands like Tibet, where the influence of indigenous Shamanism and the "Bon" religion created an entirely new, hierarchical system. This Lāmistic tradition, characterized by the reincarnation of saints and the use of mechanical prayer-wheels, represents the furthest point from the original, austere simplicity of the founder’s meditation.

The final arc of the argument shifts from historical chronology to theological contrast. The author meticulously compares the Buddhist path—a "monkhood-morality" founded on self-effort and the avoidance of life—with the Christian message of grace and the sanctification of the body. Throughout this analysis, the author does not shy away from the conclusion that these systems are fundamentally opposed. While Buddhism offers a path of self-liberation through the exhaustion of "Act-force," Christianity posits a relationship with a Creator who offers strength through external grace. The narrative ends with a reflection on the persistence of these ancient structures, noting how the rituals, temples, and superstitions of the East continue to shape human life, even as they diverge sharply from the foundational claims of the Western tradition.

How It Unfolds

The Roots in Brāhmanism The study opens by establishing the intellectual soil of India, arguing that Buddhism did not emerge in a vacuum but as an offshoot of the existing Vedic, Brāhmanical, and Hindu systems. It emphasizes that these traditions share a fluid, evolving nature, making the separation between them less definitive than Western observers might assume.

The Search for Enlightenment The focus shifts to Gautama’s early life, his abandonment of worldly life, and his failed attempt to find peace through traditional Brāhmanical philosophy and self-mortification. The text maps his journey to the sacred Bodhi-tree, where he formulates his core tenets regarding the extinction of desire and the nature of suffering.

Institutionalization and Schism The account proceeds through the early councils, detailing how the Buddha’s followers attempted to codify his teachings while grappling with internal dissent. It highlights how political shifts, particularly under King Aṡoka, facilitated the spread of the faith while simultaneously accelerating the development of new, complex "Vehicles" of belief.

The Northern Transformation The narrative moves geographically and conceptually into Tibet, documenting the emergence of Lāmism. This section examines the synthesis of Buddhist concepts with local Shamanic traditions, resulting in a culture of relic-worship, magic, and the institutionalized reincarnation of the Dalai and Panchen Lāmas.

The Theology of Contrast The book concludes with a systematic comparison between Buddhism and Christianity. It evaluates their respective moral codes, arguing that while both preach the avoidance of evil, they diverge irreconcilably on the source of moral power and the ultimate purpose of human existence.

The People

At the center of the narrative stands Gautama Buddha, the human catalyst whose quest for peace drives the entire system. He is portrayed as a figure of profound intellectual focus, yet one whose rejection of personal gods and reliance on the "Law" leads to a stark, impersonal philosophy. His cousin and disciple, Ānanda, serves as a witness to the Buddha’s original intent, particularly in the warning that the Law, rather than any individual, should guide the followers after the founder’s death.

The historical figures of the Mauryan dynasty, particularly Aṡoka, act as the architects of the faith’s institutional permanence. Aṡoka’s transition from a secular monarch to a devout patron of the order illustrates the political utility and social reach of the movement. In contrast, figures like Āḷāra and Uddaka represent the traditional Brāhmanical teachers whose metaphysical frameworks Gautama ultimately deems insufficient.

The later sections introduce the Dalai and Panchen Lāmas, who represent the final evolution of the faith into a structured, hereditary hierarchy. These individuals are framed as the products of a system that has moved far from the wandering, ascetic roots of Gautama, instead embodying the institutional power and ritualistic complexity of Lāmism. Throughout the book, the author maintains a constant dialogue with the reader and the works of contemporary observers like Megasthenes and Hiouen Thsang, whose accounts provide the empirical evidence used to substantiate the author’s claims. The reader is invited to contrast these eastern figures with the central figure of the Christian tradition, Christ, whose approach to the human body and moral suffering is presented as the definitive counterpoint to the Buddhist ethos.

In Its Own Voice

Regarding the core of the Buddhist meditation practice:

He is seated on the Mućalinda Serpent (see p. 480), in an attitude of profound meditation, with eyes half closed, and five rays of light emerging from the crown of his head.

In describing the fundamental difference in moral motivation:

Buddhism says:—Be righteous by yourselves, and through yourselves, and for the getting rid of all life in yourselves. Christianity says:—Be righteous through the power of God’s gift of eternal life in His Son.

On the nature of the Buddhist concept of action:

The only creator, then, recognized by true Buddhists is Act-force.

What It's Really About

The book is a sustained inquiry into the nature of religious evolution and the consequences of excluding a transcendent Creator from a moral system. Its central argument is that when a religion is founded solely on "Act-force"—the idea that a person is the sum of their own deeds and that these deeds possess an irresistible power—it inevitably collapses into either a rigid, nihilistic asceticism or, conversely, a superstitious, polytheistic ritualism. The author explores the "protean" nature of religious thought, suggesting that humans have an ineradicable tendency to fill the void left by an absent God with icons, relics, and hierarchies. Ultimately, the book is a study of the "contrast"—a philosophical debate on whether morality can be sustained through self-reliance or if it requires the external, divine grace that the author identifies as the unique hallmark of the Christian faith.

Why Read It Today

Reading this work today feels like stepping into a library of late-19th-century intellectual ambition. The prose is precise, formal, and deeply rooted in the linguistic and historical scholarship of the era. Readers who enjoy the intersection of comparative theology and colonial-era ethnography will find it fascinating, particularly for how it captures a Western scholar’s genuine effort to map the vast, intricate landscape of Eastern thought.

However, the modern reader should be prepared for the author’s unabashedly missionary perspective. The text does not attempt the neutral stance of contemporary religious studies; it is explicitly a work of advocacy, written from the conviction that the Christian worldview provides a superior solution to the problem of human suffering. There are also moments where the author’s Victorian-era biases emerge, particularly in the use of terms like "degraded" or "adulterated" to describe the syncretism of Tibetan practices. The book is lengthy and can be dense, especially when detailing the minute distinctions between the various "Vehicles" and the history of specific monasteries.

Yet, for those who value historical context, the book offers a rare, detailed look at the state of Buddhistic scholarship in 1889. The descriptions of prayer-wheels, temple architectures in Burma, and the daily life of monks are vivid and grounded in the accounts of early explorers. It remains a powerful record of a time when the West was just beginning to grapple with the philosophical weight of Eastern traditions, and it stays with the reader as a testament to the enduring, often difficult, dialogue between world faiths.