Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical Sketch, Vol. 1

In Short

Sir Charles Eliot’s first volume provides a comprehensive historical and critical survey of Indian religious thought and its diffusion across Asia. Beginning with the Vedic period, the narrative moves through the philosophical awakenings of the Upanishads to the emergence of Jainism and the rise of Early Buddhism. The text systematically examines the life, doctrines, and monastic institutions of Gotama Buddha, alongside the political patronage of Emperor Asoka. Beyond the Indian subcontinent, it details how these spiritual traditions transformed the cultures of Nepal, Tibet, China, and Japan. By grounding religious evolution in social structures, historical invasions, and philosophical developments, the volume demonstrates how Indian thought established an enduring spiritual framework across Asia through its unique views on rebirth, karma, and cosmic unity.

The Story

The intellectual history of India begins with the nature worship of the early Vedic period, where gods were intimately tied to cosmic phenomena. As time progressed, these early sacrificial customs transformed into the deep philosophical inquiries of the Upanishads. Central to this evolution was the development of the doctrine of reincarnation—the understanding that all life is bound to an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth driven by past actions. The Upanishadic thinkers posited the existence of the Âtman or universal self, asserting that liberation could be achieved through the realization of unity between the individual soul and the supreme reality of Brahman.

Alongside these Vedic traditions, non-Brahmanic ascetics and wandering philosophers sought alternative paths to spiritual liberation. Among these sects, the Jains survived into modern times, emphasizing severe austerity and non-violence. However, the most profound movement to emerge from this intellectual ferment was Buddhism, founded by Gotama Buddha. Rejecting both the absolute authority of the Vedas and extreme physical self-mortification, the Buddha introduced a middle way centered on psychological clarity, moral conduct, and intellectual effort.

The core of Gotama's doctrine rests upon the Four Noble Truths: that existence inherently involves suffering, that suffering originates from craving and ignorance, that suffering can cease, and that the Eightfold Path provides the way to its cessation. Rejecting the concept of an unchanging, immortal soul, the Buddha taught the doctrine of Anatta—that individual identity is a temporary collection of impermanent mental and physical constituents. The ultimate objective of this discipline is Nirvana, a state of complete liberation from passion, hatred, and delusion, representing profound freedom and joy rather than sheer annihilation.

To preserve and propagate his teaching, the Buddha founded an order of mendicant monks. Operating under strict communal discipline, these monks wandered during the dry months and gathered in monasteries during the rainy season. Following the Buddha’s death, this monastic community consolidated his discourses into structural canons, maintaining the faith through structured recitation and oral traditions.

Buddhism transformed from a regional Indian movement into a major world religion through the patronage of Emperor Asoka in the third century B.C. Converted after witnessing the horrific bloodshed of his own military campaigns, Asoka renounced imperial conquest and dedicated his reign to moral reform. He published royal edicts across his empire, built hospitals, supported the monastic sangha, and dispatched Buddhist missions across India, Sri Lanka, and Central Asia.

In the centuries following Asoka, foreign invasions by the Sakas and Kushans brought India into contact with Hellenistic, Parthian, and Central Asian cultures. Through these trade routes and geographical expansions, Buddhist ideas travelled beyond the borders of India. In Nepal, Buddhism gradually merged with Hindu rituals and caste structures. In Tibet, Indian Buddhism transformed under the influence of local traditions and Bengal's later Tantric movements, giving rise to the Lamaist church and the temporal rule of the Grand Lamas. In China and Japan, Buddhist doctrines adapted to local ancestor worship and state civic customs, embedding Indian spiritual concepts across the East Asian continent.

How It Unfolds

The roots of Indian thought The early religious life of India centers on Vedic sacrifice and nature deities. Over time, thinkers shift their focus inward toward the Upanishads, establishing the foundational concepts of karma, endless rebirth, and the unity of the individual soul with the universal supreme spirit.

The rise of new teachers Dissatisfaction with ritualism leads to a surge of non-Brahmanic ascetics and wandering scholars. Among these sects, Mahavira establishes Jainism through strict non-violence, while Gotama Buddha formulates a middle path that avoids both sensory indulgence and severe physical mortification.

The Buddha's life and ministry Gotama attains enlightenment, gathers disciples in royal parks, and spends four decades preaching across the Ganges plain. He establishes a structured monastic order governed by strict moral rules, communal property, and annual rainy-season retreats.

The final days and legacy Upon his death, the Buddha disclaims any desire to name a human successor, instructing his disciples to let his teachings and discipline be their guide. His followers organize councils to recite and preserve the Pali canon.

The imperial champion Emperor Asoka unifies India through military conquest but subsequently embraces Buddhism out of remorse for the war's devastation. He carves moral edicts on rocks and pillars, builds public works, and sends diplomatic missions to spread the faith across foreign lands.

The northern expansion Nomadic invasions by the Sakas and Kushans open trade routes into Central Asia. Buddhism spreads along these paths, adapting to local cultures in Nepal, Tibet, China, and Japan while taking on new institutional and ritual forms.

The People

• Gotama Buddha: The founder of Buddhism who rejects caste barriers and extreme asceticism. He seeks an intellectual and ethical solution to universal human suffering, teaching a practical path to Nirvana and founding the monastic order before his death.
• Asoka: The great Maurya Emperor who turns away from military conquest after a brutal war. He uses his vast political power to establish Buddhist principles, carving ethical edicts on stone and funding foreign missions.
• Ânanda: The beloved personal attendant and cousin of the Buddha who attends to the Master during his final hours, receiving his last instructions on how the order must operate after his death.
• Sâriputta and Moggallâna: Two major early converts who leave their former teacher Sâñjaya to join the Buddha's order, rapidly becoming his chief disciples and helping organize the monastic community.
• Bimbisâra: The King of Magadha who welcomes the Buddha to Rajagaha, presents the monastic order with its first pleasure-garden property, and becomes an early royal patron of the faith.
• Subhadda: A seeker who arrives during the last hours of the Buddha's life and becomes the very last convert directly instructed by Gotama before his death.
• Tsong-kha-pa: The Tibetan religious reformer who reorganizes the Lamaist church around 1400, laying the institutional foundation for the temporal rule of the Grand Lamas.
• Kanishka: The Kushan Emperor whose vast central Asian empire links India with China and Rome, playing a critical role in patronizing late Buddhist literature and northern expansion.

In Its Own Voice

"The world of transmigration has neither beginning nor end nor meaning: to those who wish to escape from it the Buddha can show the way: of obligation to stop in it there can be no question."

This observation highlights the fundamental Buddhist premise that earthly existence is a continuous cycle of suffering from which an individual must seek personal emancipation.

"He was no stylist and he was somewhat vain although, considering his imperial position and the excellence of his motives, this obvious side of his character is excusable."

Eliot provides this candid assessment of Emperor Asoka when analyzing the unique, conversational tone of the royal rock edicts carved across India.

"And though this riot of the imagination offends our ideas of good sense and proportion, the Buddhists do not often lose the distinction between what Matthew Arnold called Literature and Dogma."

The author uses this distinction to explain why miraculous stories and supernatural events in early Buddhist texts function as poetic background rather than binding articles of faith.

What It's Really About

The central argument of the book is that Indian religion is characterized by a unique continuity and an organic capacity to adapt without losing its core identity. Rather than relying on rigid, historical dogmas or a single divine creation event, Indian thought views the universe as an eternal, changing process. Human existence is understood as part of a continuous cycle of rebirth where individual actions shape future outcomes.

The work explores how different philosophical streams handle the ultimate problem of existence: the reality of suffering and the search for release. While Brahmanism seeks liberation through realizing the oneness of the self with the ultimate reality, Buddhism approaches the problem through psychological analysis and the removal of personal craving.

Furthermore, the book traces how these core Indian ideas moved across Asian borders. Whether adapting to the local shamanism of Tibet or the civic, ancestral traditions of East Asia, Indian religious concepts retained their underlying emphasis on karma, spiritual discipline, and compassion for all living beings.

Why Read It Today

This volume remains a valuable resource for readers seeking a clear, highly detailed account of Asian religious history written by an author with first-hand experience in the region. Eliot combines scholarly research with direct observations of sacred sites, temples, and living religious practices across India, East Asia, and Central Asia. The text avoids sensationalism and exoticism, offering instead a balanced comparative approach that treats Eastern traditions with serious intellectual respect.

Readers should be prepared for a work of considerable length and historical density. Because it was written in the early twentieth century, it occasionally reflects the scholarly conventions and romanization systems of its era. It assumes a reader who is willing to navigate detailed accounts of ancient royal dynasties, complex textual traditions, and specialized philosophical terms.

What stays with the reader is the author's ability to trace vast historical movements alongside subtle psychological insights. The book provides a clear perspective on how ancient spiritual ideas traveled across geographical boundaries, shaping the cultural institutions, art, and daily habits of millions of people across Asia. It is an ideal read for historians, students of comparative religion, and readers looking for a comprehensive background on Eastern philosophy.