Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical Sketch, Vol. 2

In Short

Sir Charles Eliot provides an expansive historical examination of how Buddhism and Hinduism developed, interacted, and transformed throughout the Indian subcontinent and across Asia. Tracking the shift from early Buddhist philosophy to the expansive Mahayana pantheon, the text charts how Buddhism gradually merged into surrounding traditions while Hinduism evolved into distinct devotional and philosophical systems. Through textual analysis, archaeological evidence, and historical accounts, Eliot illustrates how regional cultures, shifting dynastic fortunes, and philosophical debates shaped systems like the Vedanta and various devotional sects. The work survives as a foundational landmark in Asian religious studies due to its rigorous comparative scholarship and objective perspective.

The Story

The intellectual narrative opens with the complex evolution of Buddhist thought as it expands beyond its early foundational doctrines. Early Buddhism maintained a strictly circumscribed, practical path toward liberation, avoiding speculation about absolute entities. However, as the tradition grows, Mahayana Buddhism develops rich pantheons of Bodhisattvas like Kshitigarbha, Avalokita, and Samantabhadra. Philosophically, Mahayana splits into two primary idealistic frameworks: the Yogacara, which asserts the reality of consciousness, and the Madhyamika, which applies radical critique to label both subjective experience and the external world as empty of absolute reality. Literature expands alongside these ideas, producing extensive sutras, imaginative avadanas, and elaborate creation accounts that elevate figures like Avalokita to universal status.

As the narrative moves forward, Chinese travelers like Hsüan-Chuang and I-Ching document a shifting landscape across the Indian subcontinent. While monastic centers flourish in certain regions under royal patrons like the Pala dynasty in Bengal, external invasions, internal corruption, and changing political fortunes gradually erode the monastic infrastructure elsewhere. Monks marry in Kashmir, western monasteries linger in isolation, and northern invasions devastate monastic communities. Rather than suffering a sudden expulsion, Buddhism is largely absorbed into the surrounding culture. Major sites like Bodh-Gaya transition into Hindu places of worship, and the Buddha himself is integrated into the Hindu pantheon as an avatar of Vishnu.

Simultaneously, Hinduism undergoes its own dramatic internal developments. The devotion to deities like Rama and Krishna expands, influenced in part by the popular Buddhist precedent of venerating great spiritual teachers. Philosophical systems reach their intellectual peaks through the Vedanta, where scholars debate the nature of ultimate reality. Sankara articulates the strict monism of Advaita, holding that the individual soul and the supreme reality are one, while later thinkers like Ramanuja introduce qualified non-dualism.

In its final stages, the book traces the rise of specialized devotional, mystical, and regional movements. Tantric and Saktist traditions develop complex cosmic theories centered on active divine energy, while ecstatic devotional movements sweep through regions like Bengal under leaders such as Caitanya. In the north, the Sikhs transform from a quietist spiritual brotherhood into a distinct, organized military confederacy under leaders like Guru Govind and Banda, eventually establishing a regional monarchy under Ranjit Singh. Ultimately, Eliot demonstrates that Indian religious thought represents an unbroken, continuous stream that repeatedly adapts to new cultural realities.

How It Unfolds

The pantheon expands Mahayana Buddhism introduces a wide array of transcendent Bodhisattvas, elevating figures like Samantabhadra and Kshitigarbha from minor entities into powerful celestial figures who assist devotees across various realms.

Philosophiers clash Buddhist thought splits into competing idealist schools, with Yogacaras asserting the reality of consciousness while Madhyamikas argue that all phenomenal and ultimate concepts are completely empty of inherent attributes.

Pilgrims document decay Chinese travelers observe the geographic distribution of Buddhist sects, recording how foreign invasions, internal laxity, and shifting political support slowly weaken monastic institutions across northern and western India.

Absorption over expulsion Buddhism gradually vanishes as an independent institution, leaving its legacy embedded within broader Indian culture through shared ethics, philosophical concepts, and shrines repurposed for Hindu worship.

Devotional sects flourish Popular devotion turns toward figures like Rama and Krishna, while philosophical commentators like Sankara and Ramanuja build systemic interpretations of the Vedanta regarding the relationship between the soul and God.

Ecstatic movements spread Reformers like Caitanya emphasize emotional worship through public chanting and dancing, setting aside rigid caste distinctions in favor of universal devotion to the divine.

The Khalsa arises Sikhism evolves under the pressure of intense persecution, transforming from a movement focused on interior devotion into an organized, armed confederacy that eventually establishes political dominance in the Punjab.

The People

• Gotama (The Buddha): The historical founder whose original teachings emphasized a practical escape from worldly suffering. His deliberately circumscribed approach to abstract metaphysics sets the baseline from which later elaborate Mahayana philosophies and Hindu systems develop.
• Avalokita (Avalokitesvara): A central Mahayana Bodhisattva who embodies universal compassion. He refuses to enter final Buddhahood until all living creatures attain knowledge, eventually being elevated in late texts as a cosmic source from whom the universe and traditional deities emerge.
• Kshitigarbha: A Bodhisattva who undergoes remarkable cultural transformations as his veneration moves from India to Turkestan, China, and Japan. Originally a minor figure, he absorbs varied traits, aiding those in harsh realms and assisting women in childbearing.
• Sankara: The preeminent philosopher of the Advaita Vedanta school. He synthesizes traditional Upanishadic thought into a uncompromising system, arguing that the divine spirit is the sole reality and identical with the individual human soul.
• Caitanya: An influential fifteenth-century Bengali teacher who transforms learning into ecstatic devotion. Through singing, dancing, and non-sectarian preaching, he builds a widespread devotional movement centered on Krishna that intentionally disregards traditional caste distinctions.
• Govind (Guru Gobind Singh): The tenth Sikh Guru who guides his followers through continuous conflict with imperial authorities. By organizing the community into a resilient military framework and ending the personal line of Gurus, he shapes the political identity of the Sikhs.

In Its Own Voice

When defining the philosophical boundaries of early Mahayana thought, Eliot notes how the two major schools treated the nature of reality:

"Both are idealists and deny the reality of the external world, but whereas the Yogacaras (also called Vijnanavadins) admit that Vijnana or consciousness and the series of states of which it consists are real, the Madhyamikas refuse the title of reality to both the subjective and the objective world and hence gained a reputation of being complete nihilists."

Observing how original Buddhist sites transformed over time, he describes the contemporary reality at the location of the Buddha's enlightenment:

"What is happening at Bodh-Gaya at present illustrates how Buddhism disappeared from India."

In summarizing the ultimate trajectory and enduring triumph of indigenous philosophical inquiry across the subcontinent, he writes:

"The Vedanta is the boldest and the most characteristic form of Indian thought."

What It's Really About

The work is fundamentally an investigation into how ideas survive, mutate, and intermingle across long stretches of time and vast geographical distances. Eliot argues that Indian religious history is defined not by rigid schisms or violent suppressions, but by a continuous process of absorption and philosophical synthesis. Buddhism did not simply perish under external pressure; its core concepts, institutional structures, and ethical principles were systematically incorporated into the fabric of evolving Hinduism. Beneath the historical details lies a deeper enquiry into how abstract metaphysical debates regarding ultimate reality, consciousness, and the individual self directly shape public worship, social structures, and devotional practice. The book demonstrates that religious identities are fluid evolutionary streams rather than static systems.

Why Read It Today

This volume appeals directly to readers seeking a clear, highly detailed intellectual history of Asian religious thought. Eliot writes with remarkable clarity, framing complex theological disputes in accessible prose without resorting to sensationalism or romanticized mysticism. Reading the text feels like engaging with a patient, well-read guide who relies strictly on textual evidence, inscriptions, and historical accounts to construct a coherent comparative narrative.

The reader must navigate certain historical difficulties inherent to a early twentieth-century scholarly work. The text contains dense references to classical literature, extensive footnoted comparisons, and detailed discussions of orthography and language transliteration schemes. It also reflects the period's scholarly focus on textual analysis over social history. However, what remains with the reader is a profound sense of the interconnectedness of Eastern spiritual traditions. Eliot's calm, methodical presentation illuminates how distant cultures continually adapted shared ideas, offering a balanced perspective that remains essential for understanding the historical development of global philosophy.