Historical Parallels, vol. 2 of 3)

In Short

Arthur Thomas Malkin’s Historical Parallels, Vol. 2 presents a comparative study of world history, matching key episodes from classical antiquity with structurally similar events in medieval and early modern Europe. Through accounts of famous battles, political shifts, and devastating plagues, the volume highlights recurring patterns in human behavior, military strategy, and societal vulnerability. It has endured as an accessible example of popular nineteenth-century historiography, bridging ancient history and later European conflicts through vivid narrative summaries, contemporary accounts, and excerpts from primary sources.

The Story

The volume opens by setting ancient military triumphs alongside later European struggles for survival. It contrasts the Greek stand against Persian invasion at Marathon with Charles Martel’s clash against Islamic forces at the Battle of Tours, the legendary exploits of the Poëma del Cid, and John Sobieski’s relief of the 1683 Siege of Vienna. The narrative then moves to Switzerland’s medieval resistance against foreign dominance, highlighting how small, determined infantry forces leveraged geography and sheer determination at Morgarten and Sempach to break heavily armored aristocratic cavalry phalanxes.

Turning to desperate last stands, the text juxtaposes the heroic sacrifice at Thermopylæ with the Battle of St. Jacques near Basle, where a small Swiss detachment faced overwhelming French and Austrian forces, choosing destruction over retreat. It pairs these actions with the 1565 Siege of Malta, the destruction of the Sacred Band in the Greek Revolution, and the legendary ambush of Roland at Roncesvalles. From defense on land, the focus shifts to maritime warfare and naval blockades. The victory of the Athenian navy at Salamis is matched with the harrowing 1574 Siege of Leyden—where Dutch citizens endured severe famine and pestilence before cutting dikes to invite relief by water—and the eventual destruction of the Spanish Armada off the British coast in 1588.

Transitioning from military campaigns to political developments, the work traces the post-Persian War careers of Miltiades, Aristides, and Themistocles. It tracks how Athens transformed its defensive alliance into an imperial maritime empire. This naval dominance elevated the seafaring populist classes, undermined traditional aristocratic power, and spurred internal political rivalries under Cimon and Pericles that culminated in the Peloponnesian War. Concurrently, the text examines how sophisticated philosophical arguments in Athenian public life began to redefine justice merely as the interest of the strong, signaling an era of moral decay.

The final section explores society in crisis through the lens of medical history, examining how communities react to catastrophic disease. Drawing upon contemporary historians and observers, the author surveys four great pestilences: the Plague of Athens during the Peloponnesian War, the Plague of Constantinople, the 1348 Black Death in Florence, and the 1630 outbreaks in Milan, culminating in the 1665 Plague of London. The narrative details the failure of medical knowledge, the rise of quackery, the collapse of social order, and the varied human reactions ranging from utter despair to selfless religious devotion.

How It Unfolds

Clash of empires and knightly charges The book begins by detailing major land battles where European or Christian forces repelled formidable invaders. It narrates how King John Sobieski of Poland shattered the Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1683 through a decisive cavalry charge that broke the Grand Vizier’s forces.

Defiance in the mountain passes The focus shifts to Swiss infantry battles at Morgarten and Sempach. Duke Leopold’s heavily armored nobility dismount to form an impenetrable wall of spears, but their rigid formation proves disastrous against the mobile, furious assault of the Swiss mountain confederates.

Sacrifices unto death Examining desperate stands, the text matches Thermopylæ with the 1444 Battle of St. Jacques near Basle. Sixteen hundred Swiss troops force a river crossing against massive odds and make a final, fatal stand inside a churchyard orchard rather than retreat.

Tragical end of chivalry Drawing from medieval romance, the narrative retells the fall of Roland at Roncesvalles. Mortally wounded by spears and stones after slaying King Marfurius, Roland sounds his ivory horn to summon help too late to save his fallen company.

Naval gambits and besieged cities The book explores high-stakes naval strategy and sieges, tracing Themistocles’ trickery at Salamis alongside the Dutch resistance at Leyden. The citizens of Leyden endure extreme starvation, consuming animal hides and weeds while holding out against Spanish tyranny.

Rise of empire and moral decay The work chronicles Athens’ rise to maritime dominance after the Persian retreat. As democratic maritime interests eclipse traditional aristocracies, Sophistic arguments take root, framing justice as nothing more than the advantage of the powerful.

Cities in the grip of pestilence The final chapters detail historical outbreaks of plague from ancient Greece to seventeenth-century London. The accounts describe rapid contagion, panic, the surge of dangerous medical quackery, and the breakdown of civic ties in Milan, Florence, and London.

The People

• Duke Leopold of Austria: A young, high-minded, and revengeful prince eager for martial glory. He leads his noble cavalry into battle at Sempach, ordering them to dismount into a dense phalanx, but his romantic view of chivalry leads to catastrophic defeat against the Swiss.
• John Sobieski: The King of Poland who commands the relief forces at the Siege of Vienna. He recognizes the strategic vulnerability of the Ottoman camp, leads the decisive charge against the Grand Vizier, and frees the city despite political friction with his allies.
• Themistocles: The ambitious Athenian commander whose bold and crooked policy secures victory at Salamis. Ignored by his cautious allies, he secretly sends a messenger to the Persian fleet to trick them into blockading the straits, forcing the reluctant Greeks to fight and win.
• Rolland (Roland): The legendary paladin who faces overwhelming odds at Roncesvalles. Exhausted and mortally wounded by four spears after his men are slain, he cuts down the enemy king Marfurius before escaping the battlefield to blow his horn one last time.

In Its Own Voice

"The duke seeing the Confederates on the eminences, forgot, or perhaps never knew, that cavalry attack with far greater advantage on an ascent than on a declivity..." The author highlights how Duke Leopold’s tactical arrogance led to the disaster at Sempach.

"They might now have retreated with honour; but, flushed with the successes of the preceding day... they resolved to accomplish the purpose for which they had been sent, or to perish in the attempt." The text describes the uncompromising resolve of the Swiss detachment at the battle of St. Jacques.

"For this was a kind of sickness which far surmounted all expression of words, and both exceeded human nature in the cruelty wherewith it handled each one..." Thucydides records the overwhelming psychological and physical horror of the Plague of Athens.

What It's Really About

At its core, the volume investigates how human societies behave when pushed to absolute extremes. By placing ancient Greek history beside medieval Swiss independence struggles, early modern naval battles, and urban plague outbreaks, the book argues that structural patterns in human behavior recur across centuries. It explores the tension between arrogant power and desperate liberty, showing how small, highly motivated forces routinely dismantle rigid, overconfident empires.

Furthermore, the text examines the fragile nature of civilization during crises. Whether analyzing the rise of cynical political philosophy in imperial Athens or the collapse of social bonds in plague-ridden Milan and London, it demonstrates how extreme pressure exposes underlying moral decay, civic fragility, and self-preservation.

Why Read It Today

This volume appeals to readers of classic military history, historic historiography, and comparative cultural studies. It provides an engaging window into how nineteenth-century historians synthesized classical texts with European history to teach moral and political lessons. Reading the text feels like browsing an intellectual anthology; concise tactical breakdowns of famous battles transition into reflections on political philosophy and terrifying primary-source descriptions of epidemics.

The book’s primary difficulty lies in its archaic framing and periodic reliance on unedited early modern English or translated medieval prose. Excerpts from old chronicles feature period spellings—such as "sarasyn," "swerde," and "dofore"—while long extracts from historical treatises demand focused attention. Additionally, the text reflects nineteenth-century Eurocentric perspectives and period terminology when discussing non-European powers like the Ottoman Empire.

Nevertheless, what stays with the reader is the vivid immediacy of the historical accounts. The harrowing details of the Siege of Leyden, the frantic atmosphere of the Plague of London as observed by Samuel Pepys and Daniel Defoe, and the heroic stands at Sempach and St. Jacques remain deeply compelling.

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