History of Egypt, Chaldæa, Syria, Babylonia, and Assyria, Volume 8 (of 12)

In Short

This volume examines the turbulent Eighth and Seventh Centuries B.C., a period defined by the iron rule and expansion of the Assyrian Empire. It details how Assyrian monarchs like Sennacherib and Esarhaddon crushed rebellions across Babylonia, Judæa, and the Levant, engaging in brutal conflicts against Elam, Tyre, and Egypt. The work traces the rise of surrounding powers—including Lydia, Media, and a revived Saite Egypt—and charts the rapid decline of Nineveh. It concludes with the short-lived Neo-Babylonian Empire and the quiet, antiquarian reign of Nabonidus on the eve of Persian conquest.

The Story

The chronicle opens with the stormy ascension of Sennacherib in 705 B.C. Facing widespread revolt across his vast empire, the Assyrian monarch leads aggressive military campaigns to reassert control. In the west, he smites rebellious Phoenician cities, defeats an Egyptian-allied coalition at Altaku, and lays siege to Judæa, ravaging forty-six of King Hezekiah’s walled towns and forcing Jerusalem into submission. Simultaneously, Sennacherib battles chronic insurrections in Babylonia stirred by the resilient faction leader Merodach-baladan and his Elamite allies. After years of bitter naval and land warfare, including the bloody battle of Khalulê, Sennacherib inflicts a terrible vengeance in 689 B.C. by capturing and utterly destroying the holy city of Babylon.

Following Sennacherib's assassination, his successor Esarhaddon inherits an empire beset by border threats. To secure his realm, Esarhaddon marches into Asia Minor to repulse Cimmerian invasions, subdues mountain tribes in the Taurus range, and fortifies northern borders against Urartu. To the west, he pacifies coastal strongholds and expands his reach toward Egypt. Meanwhile, Anatolia sees the rise of the Lydian kingdom under Gyges, who seeks Assyrian aid against nomadic raiders before charting an independent path, while in the east, Deïokes and Cyaxares forge the Medes into a disciplined, formidable power by reforming their scattered tribal militias into structured units of horsemen, archers, and pikemen.

Assyrian hegemony reaches its absolute peak under Assur-bani-pal, whose armies wage devastating campaigns against Elam, culminating in the total slaughter of Elamite forces along the Ulaî River. Yet this golden age conceals fatal exhaustion. In Egypt, Psammetichus I expels Assyrian garrisons with the aid of Greek and Carian mercenaries, establishing the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. When Scythian hordes sweep through the Near East, Assyria's structural vitality snaps. Cyaxares the Mede joins forces with the Babylonians, leading to the dramatic fall of Nineveh around 625 B.C.

Out of Assyria's ashes, a brief, tense rivalry emerges between Saite Egypt and the Neo-Babylonian Empire. King Josiah of Judah dies attempting to stop Pharaoh Necho II at Megiddo, but Nebuchadrezzar II ultimately secures dominance over Syria and Judæa, razing Jerusalem and deporting its population. The narrative closes in Chaldæa, where Nebuchadrezzar's successors fail to maintain imperial momentum. The final Babylonian monarch, Nabonidus, neglects military defense and state governance in favor of excavating ancient temple foundations, leaving his empire vulnerable to the rising power of the Persians.

How It Unfolds

Sennacherib strikes Judæa After defeating Egyptian and rebel forces at Altaku, the Assyrian king encamps at Lachish, pillaging Judæan strongholds and stripping Hezekiah of his outlying lands while Jerusalem hastily fortifies its inner walls.

The raze of Babylon Exasperated by decades of Babylonian revolt and Elamite intervention, Sennacherib secures a decisive advantage and completely sacks, burns, and levels Babylon in 689 B.C.

Tiummân's defeat at the Ulaî Assyrian heavy infantry crush the Elamite army along the banks of the Ulaî River, leaving its waters choked with corpses and driving the surviving Elamite nobles into flight.

Cyaxares transforms the Medes Recognizing that tribal militias cannot match professional armies, the Median ruler reorganizes his forces by functional branch, creating a disciplined war machine that threatens Nineveh.

The battle of Megiddo King Josiah of Judah attempts to block Pharaoh Necho’s northward march through Carmel, resulting in Josiah's death and a short-lived Egyptian advance to the Euphrates.

Nabonidus seeks the past The final King of Babylon neglects his army and regional alliances, devoting his reign instead to excavating ancient temple ruins and studying antiquities while Persian forces gather on the frontier.

The People

• Sennacherib: The warlike King of Assyria who seeks to maintain his father's empire through sheer military force. Possessing great energy but lacking delicate diplomacy, he spends his reign brutally crushing rebellions from the swamps of Babylonia to the hills of Judah, culminating in his destruction of Babylon.
• Hezekiah: The King of Judah who joins a anti-Assyrian coalition backed by Egypt. When Sennacherib invades, he hastily demolishes local houses to repair Jerusalem's walls and diverts the city's water supply to survive the impending blockade.
• Gyges: A skilled Lydian warrior and courtier who rises from royal bodyguard to become King of Lydia. He defends his nation against barbarian invasions through tactical cunning, Carian mercenary support, and shifting geopolitical alliances.
• Cyaxares: The visionary ruler of Media who unites his nation's scattered clans. By modeling his army on Assyrian military units, he builds an effective fighting force that reshapes the geopolitical balance of power and overthrows Nineveh.
• Psammetichus I: The ambitious Egyptian pharaoh who restores domestic stability and secures independence from Assyria by employing foreign mercenaries and establishing strategically fortified border outposts.
• Nabonidus: The last Neo-Babylonian monarch, whose quiet, scholarly disposition leaves him ill-equipped for imperial rule. Driven by an insatiable historical curiosity, he focuses on excavating ancient monuments while his kingdom collapses around him.

In Its Own Voice

When Sennacherib turns his wrath upon the rebellious cities of the Levant, he leaves a grim record of imperial justice:

"The nobles and chiefs who had offended, I slew, and set up their corpses on stakes in a circle round the city; those of the inhabitants who had offended and committed crimes, I took them prisoners, and for the rest who had neither offended nor transgressed, I pardoned them."

Describing the rise of the Median monarchy under Cyaxares, the narrative highlights the vital structural transformation of their armed forces:

"He therefore broke up the tribal contingents and rearranged the units of which they were composed according to their natural affinities, grouping horsemen with horsemen, archers with archers, and pikemen with pikemen, taking the Assyrian cavalry and infantry as his models."

Concerning the scholarly, peaceful ruler who presided over the final days of Babylon, the text observes:

"His most salient characteristic was an insatiable curiosity concerning historical and religious antiquities, which stimulated him to undertake excavations in all the temples, in order to bring to light monuments of ages long gone by."

What It's Really About

This volume explores the mechanics of empire, the limits of military terror, and the inevitable cycle of rise and fall among ancient civilizations. It demonstrates how state power sustained purely by force creates a fragile state; Assyria’s ruthless campaign of deportations, sackings, and vassal taxation generates endless cycles of vengeance among subject populations. The text contrasts the centralized, autocratic administration of Nineveh with the rising, adaptable powers around it. Ultimately, the work shows that military dominance without cultural assimilation or political flexibility leaves an empire vulnerable to sudden collapse when new, energetic forces emerge on its frontiers.

Why Read It Today

This work offers a clear, sweeping view of Near Eastern history that connects isolated biblical and classical narratives into a single, cohesive geopolitical epic. Modern readers will appreciate the detailed coverage of military logistics, diplomatic maneuvers, and archaeological findings, which bring life to ancient leaders and forgotten kingdoms. The writing balances rigorous historical detail with dramatic storytelling, treating grand troop movements and court intrigues with equal clarity.

Readers should be prepared for dense prose, extensive academic footnotes, and archaic transliterations of ancient names and places. The text reflects nineteenth-century orientalist perspectives, particularly in its sweeping characterizations of ancient populations, but its reliance on primary inscriptions and archaeological evidence keeps the core history grounded. Anyone interested in military history, ancient diplomacy, or the foundational background of the ancient Near East will find this volume a deeply rewarding read.

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