History of Greece, Volume 03 (of 12)

In Short

This third volume of George Grote’s monumental history examines the crucial transitional era of archaic Greece, spanning the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. Grote investigates the political transformations within mainland poleis—such as the rise of despots, Solon’s sweeping reforms in Athens, and the codification of early laws—alongside the expansive outward migration of Greek settlers across the Mediterranean and Euxine seas. The narrative traces the growing interactions and conflicts between these scattered Greek settlements and the formidable non-Greek powers of Asia Minor, Assyria, Egypt, and Carthage. This volume has endured because of Grote’s rigorous critical evaluation of ancient sources, his sharp political insight into the mechanisms of early governance, and his ability to contextualize the fragile origins of democratic institutions within a wider Mediterranean framework.

The Story

The volume begins by dissecting the political dynamics of the archaic Greek states, focusing particularly on Corinth, Sikyon, Megara, and Athens. During this era, traditional oligarchical rules frequently break down under the weight of social factionalism and class oppression. In many cities, ambitious aristocrats harness popular discontent to overthrow ruling elites, establishing unconstitutional monarchies known as despotisms or tyrannies. Grote analyzes the profound anti-despotic sentiment that takes root in the Greek mind, showing how tyrants are consistently viewed as unlawful oppressors, while those who eliminate them are celebrated as civic benefactors.

Against this backdrop of volatile governance, Attica faces a severe political and economic crisis. Severe debts and oppressive laws enslave large portions of the peasantry to wealthy eupatrid landowners. An early attempt by the patrician Kylôn to seize absolute power fails, but the underlying social misery persists. Drako attempts to stabilize the state through exceptionally harsh written ordinances, yet his measures prove insufficient to quell popular agitation. The crisis culminates in the appointment of Solon, who enacts his transformative legal and constitutional reforms. Solon cancels pressing debts, frees enslaved citizens, abolishes land tenure markers, and restructures political participation based on property classes rather than noble birth. He inscribes his new laws on wooden rollers and triangular tablets, creating a durable legal foundation that survives for generations.

Beyond the mainland, the narrative turns outward to document the vast, energetic expansion of the Greek world through maritime colonization. Greek settlers establish thriving poleis along the coasts of Italy, Sicily, Asia Minor, and the Euxine Sea. In southern Italy and Sicily, cities like Syracuse, Sybaris, and Krotôn flourish, interacting and intermingling with native populations such as the Sikels and Sikans. In Epizephyrian Lokri, social disorder prompts the shepherd Zaleukus to draft the earliest known written Greek legal code, characterized by extreme rigor and strict retaliation.

As these colonial networks expand, they inevitably encounter the established non-Greek civilizations of the Eastern Mediterranean and North Africa. In Asia Minor, the vibrant Ionian cities experience a golden age of commerce and culture, centered around religious gatherings such as the great festival at Delos. However, their independence is gradually threatened by the rise of the Lydian monarchy under Alyattês and Crœsus, who bring the coastal Greek cities under subjection and tribute. Beyond Lydia, Grote examines the broader international horizon: the power of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, the ancient astronomical and social structures of Egypt, the inland tribes of Asia Minor and Scythia, and the expanding maritime trade of the Phoenicians and their powerful African colony, Carthage. The volume concludes by demonstrating how these complex interactions with foreign empires and eastern cultures—from borrowing musical scales and weight systems to adopting alphabetical writing—simultaneously stimulate Greek development and set the stage for the dramatic geopolitical struggles of the classical era.

How It Unfolds

The rise of early despots In cities like Corinth, Sikyon, and Megara, social divisions allow ambitious individuals to overthrow established oligarchies and seize personal rule. These despots govern without constitutional authority, sparking an enduring, unanimous sentiment throughout the Greek world that ranks the tyrant among the most odious of criminals.

The crisis in Attica Attica suffers under an oppressive eupatrid oligarchy, severe debt slavery, and internal factionalism. Kylôn attempts an abortive coup to establish a despotism, while Drako's subsequent legal code fails to alleviate the deep economic misery of the populace.

The reforms of Solon Appointed to resolve the state's ruinous distress, Solon cancels agricultural debts, liberates enslaved citizens, and establishes a new constitution based on property qualifications. His laws, preserved on wooden rollers called axones, establish a foundation of civic equity while leaving sacred traditions untouched.

The colonial expansion westward Corinthian and Eubœan emigrants sail to Sicily and Southern Italy, founding major urban centers such as Syracuse and Krotôn. These colonies struggle against local populations, navigate complex internal feuds, and eventually introduce written legal codes like that of Zaleukus in Epizephyrian Lokri.

The subjection of Asiatic Ionians The prosperous Ionian cities of Asia Minor, despite their vibrant maritime culture and shared religious festivals at Delos, face growing pressure from the Lydian kingdom. King Crœsus systematically attacks the coastal towns, forcing Ephesus and its neighbors into subjection and compulsory tribute.

Encountering the Eastern empires The narrative expands to analyze the surrounding non-Greek powers, including the Lydians, Babylonians, Egyptians, and Scythian tribes. Greek culture absorbs significant technological, astronomical, and alphabetic advancements from these older civilizations while contending with the rise of regional powers like Carthage.

The People

• Solon: An Athenian statesman and poet who seeks to heal the bitter class divisions of Attica. He wants to relieve the suffering of impoverished citizens without entirely destroying the privilege of the wealthy elites. By abolishing debt slavery and instituting a property-based constitutional system, he successfully establishes a stable legal framework and transforms from a mediator into Athens's foundational lawgiver.
• Crœsus: The ambitious King of Lydia who wants to extend his continental dominion over the coastal Greek cities of Asia Minor. Driven by military ambition and a belief in his own supreme prosperity, he systematically reduces the independent Ionian poleis to tributary status, though his pride ultimately invites political subjugation by larger foreign empires.
• Kylôn: A prominent Athenian patrician and Olympic victor who seeks to establish himself as absolute ruler of Athens. Encouraged by his father-in-law, the despot of Megara, he seizes the Acropolis based on an ambiguous oracle, but his bid for tyranny fails, leaving the Athenian state further fractured by civil strife.
• Zaleukus: A legendary shepherd of Epizephyrian Lokri who is tasked with creating a system of governance to end the colony's severe lawlessness. Professing to receive his mandates directly from the goddess Athênê in a dream, he produces the earliest written Greek legal code, defined by uncompromising rigor and retaliatory penalties.
• Archias: A nobleman of the Bacchiad family in Corinth who is forced into banishment after his unbridled passion inadvertently leads to the death of a young citizen named Aktæon. Driven from his homeland by a father's curse and public condemnation, he leads a body of emigrants to Sicily and lays the groundwork for the city of Syracuse.

In Its Own Voice

The orator Lysias, present at the Olympic games, and seeing the theors of the Syracusan despot Dionysius also present, in tents with gilding and purple, addressed an harangue, inciting the assembled Greeks to demolish the tents.

Grote notes this event to illustrate the intense, universal hostility that ancient Greek communities harbored toward autocratic rulers and their displays of wealth.

On the tablets, called kyrbeis, were chiefly commemorated the laws respecting sacred rites and sacrifices: on the pillars, or rollers, of which there were at least sixteen, were placed the regulations respecting matters profane.

This description details the physical medium through which Solon’s landmark legal reforms were preserved and displayed to the public in the Athenian prytaneium.

Easy as the voyage from Corinth to Cadiz may now appear to us, to a Greek of the seventh or sixth centuries B.C. it was a formidable undertaking.

Grote uses this geographical observation to emphasize the immense hazards, technical limitations, and bravery involved in early Greek maritime exploration across the Mediterranean.

What It's Really About

Beneath its detailed narrative of political revolutions and territorial expansion, this volume explores the fundamental tension between arbitrary power and the rule of law. Grote uses the rise and fall of early tyrannies to argue that political stability and human dignity cannot survive under autocracy. The Greek experience demonstrates an evolving civic consciousness that gradually rejects the unrestrained will of individual rulers in favor of structured constitutions and public legal codes.

Another central theme is the constructive power of institutional reform in times of extreme social distress. Solon’s work in Athens serves as a case study in practical, moderate statesmanship. Rather than succumbing to partisan extremism, Solon balances economic relief with constitutional order, proving that political communities can overcome existential crises through rational deliberation rather than violence. Finally, the text highlights the interconnectedness of the ancient Mediterranean, illustrating how Greek identity was forged not in isolation, but through continuous trade, colonial migration, and cultural exchange with older Eastern civilizations.

Why Read It Today

George Grote’s work remains a monumental achievement in nineteenth-century historiography, offering modern readers an exceptionally thorough and politically nuanced account of archaic Greece. Readers who appreciate rigorous source analysis, institutional history, and vast geopolitical sweeps will find this volume deeply rewarding. Grote writes with clarity, gravitas, and a passionate commitment to democratic ideals, making the complex political maneuvers of ancient city-states feel vital and immediate.

The primary difficulty for contemporary readers lies in the book's dense, unhurried prose style and its heavy reliance on extensive scholarly footnotes. Grote frequently pauses his historical narrative to debate fine points of ancient chronology, analyze linguistic variants, or critique competing nineteenth-century German and French scholars. Furthermore, his unnormalized Greek transliterations—such as using "Kylôn" instead of the more familiar "Cylon"—require a brief period of adjustment.

Despite these academic hurdles, the volume leaves a lasting impression through its vivid portrayal of early human governance. Grote’s insistence on evaluating ancient claims against rigorous standards of evidence teaches readers how to critically analyze historical sources. His detailed examination of how small, vulnerable communities developed written laws, resisted tyranny, and navigated encounters with giant foreign empires provides a timeless meditation on the fragile origins of free institutions.

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