History of the Conquest of Peru: With a Preliminary View of the Civilization of the Incas

In Short

This two-volume historical narrative examines the rise and fall of the Inca Empire, the Spanish expedition that brought about its collapse, and the chaotic years of civil strife that followed. Opening with an expansive portrait of Andean society—from its administrative discipline and architectural marvels to its agricultural ingenuity—the narrative transitions into an adventure of conquest led by Francisco Pizarro and his associates. Through improbable victories, calculated betrayals, and astonishing displays of greed, a tiny force of Spanish adventurers subdues a vast imperial power. Yet the fall of the Incas does not bring peace; instead, the conquerors turn their weapons upon each other in a fierce struggle for land, title, and royal favor. Written with literary elegance and drawing directly upon rich primary archives, this classic work has endured because it pairs rigorous historical scholarship with a dramatic, almost tragic view of human ambition and imperial ruin.

The Story

The narrative opens not with the clash of arms, but with a wide-angle investigation into the civilization of the Incas. In the high valleys of the Andes, a unique imperial state flourishes through central organization, vast public works, and disciplined social order. Royal progresses carry the sovereign across the realm in litters gleaming with gold and emeralds, while subjects line the roads to sweep away debris and strew sweet-scented flowers. A network of high-altitude highways spans pathless sierras and terrifying chasms, linked by hanging bridges and solid masonry. In sacred precincts like the Sun Temple, gold and silver simulate fields of corn and grazing livestock. Below the surface, brilliant agricultural methods convert arid valleys and rocky slopes into fertile terraces, nourished by coastal guano and deep excavations. Yet this highly structured society leaves little room for individual agency, creating an obedient populace governed entirely by law and tradition.

Against this settled backdrop arrives a very different force: Spanish fortune-seekers driven by an unquenchable thirst for wealth and glory. Francisco Pizarro, an illiterate but fiercely resolute soldier, joins with Diego de Almagro and the ecclesiastic Hernando de Luque to push south into uncharted waters. Early attempts yield mostly starvation, disease, and deadly encounters in dismal mangrove swamps where men are buried in sand to escape insects. Yet initial hardship gives way to breathtaking discovery when the Spaniards land on the Peruvian coast, glimpsing the immense wealth and sophisticated culture of the empire.

Returning with royal authorization from Spain, Pizarro leads a tiny expedition into the interior, aiming directly for the Inca monarch, Atahuallpa. The conquest turns on a extraordinary gamble. As Atahuallpa rests at Caxamalca surrounded by a formidable army, the Spaniards conceal themselves in the city’s plaza. When the monarch arrives, he is seized in a sudden, violent strike that scatters his forces and leaves the sovereign a prisoner. Realizing his captors' passion for precious metals, Atahuallpa offers a vast room filled with gold and silver as his ransom. But as the treasure pours in, political calculations turn grim. Atahuallpa secretly orders the murder of his captive rival and half-brother, Huascar, to prevent the Spaniards from backing his rival's claim. Once the ransom is collected, rumors of an Indian uprising panic the Spanish camp. Despite lacking firm evidence, Pizarro executes the Inca ruler, clearing the path to the imperial capital of Cuzco.

The fall of the sovereign does not immediately secure the country. A fierce native resistance erupts under the young Inca Manco, who besieges Cuzco and throws the Spaniards into desperate peril. High-stakes fighting claims the life of Juan Pizarro, a valiant captain noted for his mildness, before the Spaniards manage to retake the city's towering fortress.

As the indigenous resistance fractures, the conquerors turn their weapons upon one another. Long-simmering rivalries between Pizarro and his partner Almagro boil over into open war over the jurisdiction of Cuzco. Almagro is eventually defeated and executed, but his faction nurses deep bitterness. Years later, a group of Almagro’s former followers storm Pizarro's palace in the City of the Kings (Lima) and assassinate the aging conqueror.

The colony descends into further chaos when the Spanish Crown attempts to impose the "New Laws," aimed at protecting the native population from excessive exploitation and reducing the power of the conquerors. Outraged by these restrictions, the settlers flock to Gonzalo Pizarro, who rises in open rebellion against the royal viceroy. Gonzalo’s ruthless lieutenant, Francisco de Carbajal, urges him to throw off allegiance to Spain entirely and declare himself king of Peru. Gonzalo hesitates, clinging to hopes of royal pardon while maintaining a lavish, courtly existence.

The crisis is finally resolved not by a military conqueror, but by a quiet ecclesiastic: Pedro de la Gasca. Arriving with no army, Gasca relies on diplomacy, authority, and judicious promises of amnesty to dismantle the rebellion piece by piece. As his influence grows, Gonzalo Pizarro’s forces desert him on the field of Xaquixaguana without striking a blow. Gonzalo and Carbajal are captured and executed under formal judicial sentence. Order is restored to the ruined empire, leaving behind a altered land where the grand works of the Incas and the wild ambitions of the conquistadors lie buried in history.

How It Unfolds

The Inca world surveyed The narrative begins with an investigation into Andean society, detailing its state-directed economy, public highways, and vast temples filled with precious metals. It emphasizes how the absolute authority of the sovereign fostered incredible public works alongside total civic obedience.

The search moving south Pizarro and his early companions embark on grueling initial voyages along the Pacific coast, facing starvation, harsh terrain, and deadly encounters in swampy solitudes. Their persistence is rewarded when they make contact with coastal Peruvian settlements, confirming rumors of a wealthy empire.

The march into the mountains With royal support secured, Pizarro leads a small body of troops directly into the Andes toward the camp of Atahuallpa. The Spaniards marvel at the discipline of the royal army while harboring deep anxiety over their own tiny numbers.

The seizure at Caxamalca Using tactical surprise, the Spaniards capture Atahuallpa in the center of his own town, paralyzing the empire's leadership. The captive monarch attempts to buy his freedom with an astonishing roomful of gold and silver.

Fratricide and execution Fearing his captive brother Huascar will ally with the Spaniards, Atahuallpa orders Huascar drowned. Soon after, surrounded by rumors of native insurrections, Pizarro orders Atahuallpa’s death, dissolving the core of Inca governance.

The rebellion for Cuzco The Spaniards occupy Cuzco, but a massive native uprising led by Manco Inca traps the garrison in a bloody siege. Juan Pizarro falls during the desperate assault to retake the city’s key fortress.

The feud of the captains Rivalry over territory erupts into civil war between Pizarro and Almagro. After battles across the valleys, Almagro is defeated and executed, leaving his faction impoverished and vengeful.

Assassination in Lima Desperate partisans of Almagro invade Francisco Pizarro’s palace, slaying the conqueror and plunging the colony into renewed political turmoil under rival leadership.

The rebel standard raised When the Crown introduces protective laws for the native population, Gonzalo Pizarro leads a major colonial revolt against the royal viceroy. Supported by the cunning veteran Carbajal, Gonzalo takes control of the region.

The priest disarms the rebel The ecclesiastic Pedro de la Gasca arrives from Spain without troops, using diplomacy, strategic pardons, and moral authority to undermine Gonzalo’s backing. Gonzalo's army vanishes through desertion at Xaquixaguana, ending the revolt and bringing judicial execution to its leaders.

The People

• Francisco Pizarro wants wealth, territorial dominion, and enduring fame in the New World. Unchecked by lack of education or moral scrupulousness, his resolve and courage allow him to lead a tiny force into the heart of an empire. He ends his life as a wealthy governor, only to be struck down in his own palace by the bitter partisans of his former partner.
• Atahuallpa wants to maintain his newly won control over the Inca realm following a dynastic dispute. Confronted by strange foreign invaders, he relies on his royal status and immense wealth to secure his release, ordering his brother's execution to safeguard his claim. He ends up betrayed and executed by his captors once his ransom is collected.
• Huascar wants to preserve his legitimate inheritance as the rightful sovereign of Cuzco. Gentle and less aggressive than his brother, he attempts to negotiate with the Spaniards from captivity. His efforts end prematurely when he is drowned by Atahuallpa's agents.
• Diego de Almagro wants equal share in the glory, profits, and governorship of the conquered territories. Constantly suspicious of Pizarro's political maneuvers, his frustration turns into armed conflict over the possession of Cuzco. He ends up defeated in battle and executed by his rivals, leaving behind a legacy of vengeance.
• Gonzalo Pizarro wants to protect the privileges of the Spanish conquerors against royal interference and rule Peru in grand style. Though brave in the field, he lacks political vision and hesitates to seize the crown outright. He ends up abandoned by his men and executed as a traitor to the Spanish monarch.
• Francisco de Carbajal wants military success, practical order, and the pragmatic elevation of Gonzalo Pizarro to independent kingship. Cynical, tireless, and utterly unburdened by loyalty to the Crown, he directs Gonzalo's army with ruthless efficiency. He ends up captured alongside his leader and led to the scaffold with grim stoicism.
• Pedro de la Gasca wants to restore royal authority and peace to a torn colony without relying on ruinous military invasion. Armed only with broad legal powers, deep patience, and unassailable integrity, he wins over the colonial population and successfully establishes royal law before returning peacefully to Spain.

In Its Own Voice

"The noble loads which traversed the table-land were lined with people, who swept away the stones and stubble from their surface, strewing them with sweet-scented flowers, and vying with each other in carrying forward the baggage from one village to another."

This passage captures the extraordinary level of central organization and public devotion that defined the daily administrative life of the Inca Empire.

"Famine came in addition to other troubles, and it was with difficulty that they found the means of sustaining life on the scanty fare of the forest, - occasionally the potato, as it grew without cultivation, or the wild cocoa-nut, or, on the shore, the salt and bitter fruit of the mangrove;"

Here the text reveals the harrowing physical suffering faced by early Spanish explorers long before any gold was discovered in the mountain interior.

"It was better that they should thus be overcome by moral force than by a brutal appeal to arms."

This reflection highlights the ultimate collapse of Gonzalo Pizarro's rebellion before the quiet legal authority of Pedro de la Gasca, illustrating how moral and legal legitimacy triumphed where military violence had failed.

What It's Really About

Beneath its narrative of marches, battles, and political maneuvering, the book investigates the nature of empire and the fragile foundation of human authority. It presents a comparative study of two distinct forms of power: the absolute, paternalistic order of the Incas and the volatile, individualistic ambition of the Spanish conquerors.

The text argues that while the Inca state achieved extraordinary physical feats and social order, its complete elimination of personal independence left its people incapable of self-direction once the central authority was removed. When the sovereign fell, the grand structure unraveling around him demonstrated how fragile a society becomes when built entirely on passive obedience.

Conversely, the Spanish enterprise reveals the destructive side of unbridled individualism. Driven by personal ambition and an appetite for precious metals, the conquerors prove capable of subduing an empire, yet completely incapable of governing themselves. Their triumph rapidly decays into bloody factionalism, proving that military conquest without moral constraint or legal order leads inevitably to self-destruction. In the end, true stability is restored not by the sword, but by the quiet reassertion of law, justice, and personal integrity.

Why Read It Today

This work remains a masterclass in historical narrative, blending meticulous archival research with the dramatic pace of an epic novel. Readers who enjoy sweeping histories of empire, complex political intrigue, and dramatic character studies will find themselves completely absorbed. The prose is clear, measured, and evocative, painting vivid scenes of snow-covered Andean passes, dazzling temple interiors, and tense negotiations.

The reading experience requires some patience. The work is substantial in scope and includes detailed descriptions of military maneuvers, administrative laws, and archival documentation. The tone reflects nineteenth-century literary sensibilities, carrying a formal dignity that takes a few chapters to settle into. Readers should also expect the period attitudes of its era, particularly regarding cultural comparisons and moral judgments on historical figures.

What stays with you is the sheer implausibility of the history itself: how a small band of desperate adventurers managed to break an ancient empire, only to consume themselves in bitter feuds over the spoils. The contrast between the grand physical achievements of the Incas and the tragic chaos that followed their downfall leaves a lasting impression on anyone interested in how empires rise, fall, and fragment.