History of the Peninsular War, Volume 5 (of 6)

In Short

This volume chronicles the Peninsular War through its central campaigns across Catalonia, Portugal, Aragon, and Extremadura, leading up to key political shifts in Great Britain. It detailing the agonizing sieges of Tortosa and Badajoz, the rise of wide-scale guerrilla warfare in the Spanish countryside, and Lord Wellington's calculated maneuvers against Massena and Soult. Alongside military operations, it traces the establishment of the Spanish Cortes and the political turmoil in London following the assassination of Prime Minister Perceval. The work has lasted because it provides a comprehensive, eye-level account of early nineteenth-century total war, balancing high-level political decisions with the raw grit, desperation, and tactical maneuvers of the forces on the ground.

The Story

The narrative opens in Catalonia and Aragon, where Marshal Macdonald and General Suchet press the French advance, focusing their energies on securing vital strongholds along the Ebro. Despite fierce local defense, coordinated resistance by Spanish forces, and harassment from irregular troops, key strongholds like Mequinenza and Tortosa ultimately fall to the besiegers. These initial conventional setbacks do not crush Spanish resolve; instead, the conflict rapidly transforms into a widespread, relentless guerrilla war. Across New Castille, Navarre, and the high roads to Madrid, irregular bands and regional leaders leverage their knowledge of the rugged landscape to ambush supply lines, destroy fortified posts, and tie down vast numbers of imperial troops.

In the political realm, the assemble of the general and extraordinary Cortes in Cadiz marks a pivotal shift for the Spanish cause. The deputies formally proclaim Ferdinand VII as their lawful king, declare national sovereignty, and separate executive from legislative authority, forcing the ruling Regency to swear obedience to the newly framed constitutional mandate.

Action shifts dramatically to the Portuguese frontier, where Massena's invading force finds itself starving and immobilized before Wellington’s defenses. Exhausted by privation, harassment from local Portuguese militia, and internal collapse of discipline, the French army is forced into a costly retreat back toward Spain. Wellington pursues them, winning key engagements along the Coa and securing Guarda. British aid in the form of seed corn, tools, and cattle is distributed to help the devastated Portuguese peasantry rebuild, while Wellington issues stark warnings that the threat of future plunder remains ever-present.

The theater expands as blood is spilled in fierce battles across the southern front. General Graham achieves a brilliant tactical triumph at Barrosa, though frustrated by lack of support from his allies. Meanwhile, Soult attempts to preserve French control over Andalusia and relieve key garrisons. At Albuhera and along the Guadiana, horrific casualties test both sides, with Soult claiming strategic victory even as his offensive momentum stalls.

In Navarre and Catalonia, guerrilla commanders like Espoz y Mina fight a desperate game of survival against French forces sent specifically to hunt them down. Despite being surrounded by enemy garrisons, Mina uses ambushes and rapid movement to defeat isolated detachments. The war reaches a bloody climax during the siege of Badajoz. Besieged under torrential rains and knee-deep mud, British troops endure severe sorties before breaching the fortress. Following these grueling operations, Wellington withdraws his army toward Beira to rest and resupply.

The volume concludes by shifting its focus to the political theater in London. Marquis Wellesley resigns his cabinet post over disagreements regarding the allocation of resources for the Peninsular campaign. Shortly thereafter, the assassination of Prime Minister Spencer Perceval plunges the British government into a protracted administrative crisis. Intricate negotiations between Lord Grey, Lord Grenville, Earl Moira, and Marquis Wellesley fail to form a coalition, leaving the future direction of British military support hanging in a precarious balance.

How It Unfolds

The siege of Tortosa Suchet invests the city while General Lili issues a fierce proclamation calling on non-combatants to leave and swearing to defend the fortress to the last extremity. Despite stubborn resistance and the distribution of anti-French pamphlets to besieging troops, the trenches advance and the garrison is eventually forced to surrender.

The surge of irregular warfare As regular Spanish armies struggle, guerrilla warfare spreads rapidly along the strategic highways and mountain passes. Figures like the Potter near Jaca and Espoz y Mina in Navarre organize effective regional resistance, prompting the French to fortify roadside villages and stringently inspect wounded soldiers returning to France.

The Cortes asserts sovereignty Meeting in extraordinary session, the Spanish deputies assemble to establish a constitutional framework. They declare national sovereignty, reaffirm allegiance to Ferdinand VII, separate legislative powers from the executive Regency, and require a formal oath of obedience from state officials.

Massena's forced retreat Starved of provisions and harassed by Portuguese irregulars under officers like Colonel Grant, the French army under Massena reaches the limit of its endurance. Internal discipline breaks down, forcing the French command to order a difficult withdrawal from Portugal back toward the Spanish border.

The battle of Barrosa General Graham forms his remaining British lines following a twenty-hour march and counterattacks French positions on the heights of Barrosa. The British troops retake their lost artillery by the bayonet and secure a bloody victory despite minimal assistance from the main Spanish force under Lapeña.

The siege and storming of Badajoz Wellington’s army breaks ground before Badajoz amid heavy rainstorms, working in knee-deep mud to construct parallels. The French garrison executes a disruptive cavalry and infantry sortie into the trenches before being driven back, setting up a brutal and costly siege.

Cabinet crisis in London Following the resignation of Marquis Wellesley and the assassination of Prime Minister Perceval, political paralysis grips Great Britain. Detailed negotiations between major parliamentary leaders fail to produce a unified cabinet, threatening the continued funding and support of the peninsular campaign.

The People

• Lord Wellington: The pragmatic British commander-in-chief whose strategy relies on methodical long-term planning, strict logistics, and calculated defensive positioning. He seeks to protect his army while exhausting French forces, continuously balancing military operations with the challenge of securing supplies and managing coalition diplomacy.
• Marshal Massena: The veteran French commander tasked with invading Portugal. He wants to force a decisive engagement or drive the British to the sea, but finds his plans frustrated by logistics, harsh terrain, starvation, and a breakdown of military discipline within his ranks.
• Espoz y Mina: A daring Spanish guerrilla leader operating in Navarre. Surrounded on all sides by French strongholds, he seeks to maintain an active field force, relying on rapid movements, local knowledge, and ambushes to defeat superior enemy detachments sent to capture him.
• General Graham: A decisive British officer who commands troops at the Battle of Barrosa. Seeking to break French lines, he displays tactical skill and courage by immediately re-engaging the enemy with the bayonet when his flank is threatened.
• Marquis Wellesley: The British Foreign Secretary who advocates for a comprehensive reform and heavy financial investment in the Spanish war effort. Frustrated by cabinet caution and his inability to secure adequate military support for his brother Wellington, he ultimately resigns his office.

In Its Own Voice

"He and his garrison had sworn, and he now repeated the vow, that Tortosa should not be yielded up till it had surpassed, if that were possible, the measure of resistance at Zaragoza and Gerona."

General Lili issues a stern proclamation to the inhabitants and defenders of Tortosa as French forces surround the city.

"The Portugueze ought not to relax their preparations for resistance. Every man capable of bearing arms ought to learn the use of them..."

Lord Wellington warns the liberated people of Portugal that future French invasions remain a threat despite Massena's retreat.

"The weather continued so rainy that the trenches were knee-deep in mud and water."

The physical reality confronting British troops as they break ground during the hazardous siege of Badajoz.

What It's Really About

At its core, this volume examines the brutal realities of asymmetrical warfare and the intricate logistics required to sustain large-scale operations in hostile terrain. It investigates how a regular military force copes with an elusive, decentralized insurgency supported by a local population. The text illustrates the constant tension between supreme military planning and the chaotic, unpredictable human factors of war—such as weather, supply failures, local panic, and political hesitation. Furthermore, it explores the delicate balance between civil governance and military necessity, showing how legislative debates in Cadiz and cabinet struggles in London directly dictate the survival of armies fighting in the field.

Why Read It Today

This work offers a detailed, unvarnished look at early nineteenth-century European warfare. Southey writes with a steady, authoritative voice that emphasizes precise tactical maneuvers, geographic layout, and primary documentation. Readers who appreciate rigorous military history will find rich material in its operational breakdowns, from siege craft mechanics to the dynamics of guerrilla movements.

However, modern readers should be prepared for its demanding structure and period style. The narrative is dense with archaic geographical spellings, extensive operational details, and long sentences filled with regional names and unit designations. The text reflects nineteenth-century British perspectives, offering candid, often critical observations regarding foreign commanders, allied administrations, and enemy tactics. What stays with the reader is the stark portrayal of war's human cost—the grueling marches through mud and rain, the devastation wrought upon local populations, and the sheer willpower required by individual leaders to maintain order amid political and military collapse.