Josephus

In Short

Norman Bentwich presents an unsparing critical study of Flavius Josephus, evaluating his life, writings, and moral legacy from a Jewish perspective. The book traces how a Pharisaic priest and military commander in Galilee abandoned his defense during the Great Jewish Revolt, surrendered to the Romans, and secured imperial patronage under the Flavian dynasty. Bentwich examines Josephus's historical works—including the Wars, Antiquities, and Against Apion—revealing him as a literary compiler who relied heavily on pagan and royal chroniclers. Ultimately, Bentwich judges Josephus as a flawed patriot but an indispensable preserver of Jewish history.

The Story

Bentwich constructs his critical investigation by first establishing the volatile historical canvas upon which Josephus operated. During the early Roman Principate, imperial policies shifted erratically from the administrative oversight of Tiberius to the reckless demands of Caligula, who sought to place his image in Jewish temples. Tensions mounted in Judea as Roman governors routinely favored Hellenized populations over the Jewish majority. Within this pressure cooker, Josephus grew up as an ambitious young priest in Jerusalem. He aligned himself with the Pharisees, whom Bentwich describes as pacifists favorers of moral force over physical violence, before embarking on a voyage to Rome at age twenty-six.

In the imperial capital, Josephus utilized an introduction to a Jewish actor named Aliturius—a favorite of Nero—to win the favor of Empress Poppaea Sabina and free imprisoned Jewish priests. The sheer physical grandiosity and raw military might of Rome left a permanent impression on Josephus, convincing him of the empire’s absolute invincibility. Upon returning to Judea, he assumed command of the rebel forces in Galilee during the outbreak of the Jewish Revolt. However, when his stronghold fell, he avoided a suicide pact, surrendered to Vespasian, and accurately prophesied that the general would become emperor. While religious leaders like Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai surrendered to preserve Jewish spiritual learning by establishing the academy at Jabneh, Josephus surrendered out of personal opportunism.

Following the destruction of Jerusalem, Josephus transitioned into a courtier in Rome under Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, depending on aristocratic patrons such as Epaphroditus. Bentwich analyzes Josephus’s literary output, demonstrating how his historical books depend largely on earlier compilers and Hellenistic historians, such as Nicholas of Damascus and Strabo of Amasea. In writing the Antiquities, Josephus relied on the Septuagint and Greek traditions, often altering Biblical narratives and legal codes—such as the laws on evidence, debt release, and retaliation—to match Greco-Roman legal expectations and philosophical tastes.

In his later defense of Judaism, titled Against Apion or Address to the Greeks, Josephus argued for the ancient origin of the Jewish people and defined the Mosaic constitution as a "Theocracy" where virtue forms part of religion. In contrast, his Life degenerated into a self-defending pamphlet written to counter accusations from rival historian Justus of Tiberias. Bentwich concludes that while Josephus lived as a mediocre man and court flunkey who sacrificed his personal honor, his preserved writings unexpectedly provided future generations with their chief window into ancient Jewish history.

How It Unfolds

Rome imposes its authority The Roman Empire gradually annexes client kingdoms across Palestine, creating deep religious friction and political instability among the Jewish population. Governors like Pontius Pilate exacerbate local bitterness while Emperor Caligula demands divine worship from all subjects.

The young priest visits Rome Josephus travels to Rome to secure the release of imprisoned priests, surviving a shipwreck on the journey. Through Aliturius, a Jewish actor in Nero's court, he gains access to Empress Poppaea Sabina and develops a lasting awe of Roman invincibility.

Surrender in Galilee Appointed as a military commander in Galilee, Josephus leads a failed defense against Vespasian's legions. As his men perish, he orchestrates his own survival, surrenders to the enemy commander, and predicts Vespasian's rise to the imperial throne.

Living as an imperial client After the fall of Jerusalem, Josephus settles in Rome under the patronage of the Flavian emperors. He writes his major historical works while relying on patrons like Epaphroditus and navigating the dangerous reign of Domitian.

Compiling the history of the Jews In composing the Wars and Antiquities, Josephus heavily borrows from non-Jewish writers like Nicholas of Damascus and Strabo. He adapts biblical laws and historical narratives to make Jewish heritage palatable to Greek and Roman readers.

Defending the faith in exile Faced with widespread pagan hostility, Josephus composes a detailed apology for his nation. He asserts the great antiquity of the Jews and frames the Mosaic code as a unique, elevated system of divine law.

The People

• Josephus (Flavius Josephus): A Jewish priest, military commander, and historian. He desires personal survival, elevated social standing, and literary fame, but his cowardice and opportunism stand in his way. He ends up as a courtier in Rome, despised as a traitor by his own people yet preserved as a primary historian for posterity.
• Vespasian: A pragmatic Roman general who ascends to emperor. He wants political stability across the empire and personal confirmation of his rise to power; Josephus's flattered prophecies gain his favor, leading him to protect the young Jewish commander.
• Nicholas of Damascus: A versatile court historian, diplomat, and minister to Herod the Great. He seeks to chronicle broad world events, but his extensive writings are later adapted and heavily drawn upon by Josephus to fill large gaps in Jewish history.
• Rabbi Johanan ben Zakkai: The leader of the Pharisaic party who escapes besieged Jerusalem in a coffin. He wants to preserve the spiritual core of Judaism without relying on military force, succeeding by founding the academy at Jabneh to maintain Jewish learning.
• Agrippa I: The grandson of Herod who grows up in Rome. He desires to balance his loyalty to imperial patrons with his rule over Judea, remaining popular through his mild disposition and careful public observance of Jewish law.

In Its Own Voice

"He was a mediocre man, and chose the way that was not heroic and glorious. Posterity gained something by his choice; his own reputation was fatally marred by it."

Context: Bentwich reflects on Josephus's decision to surrender to Vespasian rather than die with his fellow soldiers in Galilee.

"When we long for fishes and fowls and fourfooted animals and every kind of food that is forbidden to us by the Law, it is through the mastery of pious reason that we abstain from them."

Context: Bentwich highlights a passage from The Sovereignty of Reason (Fourth Maccabees), a work historically misattributed to Josephus.

"...our legislator had no regard to any of these forms, but he ordained our government to be what, by a strained expression, may be termed a Theocracy, by ascribing the authority and the power to God..."

Context: Josephus explains the fundamental nature of the Mosaic constitution in his apologetic work directed at the Greek-speaking world.

What It's Really About

Bentwich examines the tension between moral integrity and historical preservation. The book investigates how a compromised historical actor—motivated by self-preservation and personal ambition—can still perform an essential service for human memory. By contrasting Josephus’s political betrayals with his actual writings, Bentwich explores the nature of Jewish identity under the shadow of the Roman Empire. He probes how ancient historians compiled their sources, modified religious texts for pagan audiences, and navigated the boundary between national loyalty and cultural assimilation. Ultimately, the work asks whether an author's personal character invalidates the value of their historical output.

Why Read It Today

This volume appeals to readers of ancient history, historiography, and religious studies who want a clear-eyed evaluation of one of antiquity's most controversial figures. Bentwich writes with measured clarity, stripping away both Christian veneration and uncritical denunciation to deliver a balanced judgment grounded in Jewish thought. The reader experiences a fascinating behind-the-scenes look at how ancient books were actually constructed, observing how Josephus copied, edited, and occasionally misread his sources.

The primary difficulty for modern readers lies in the dense textual references and historical context. Bentwich frequently cites Latin titles, Greek terms, apocryphal works, and obscure ancient authors without lengthy introductions, assuming a basic familiarity with the period. Furthermore, the prose reflects the scholarly conventions of the early twentieth century, maintaining a serious, analytical tone throughout. What remains with the reader is a deeply human portrait of a flawed man caught in an apocalyptic clash of empires—an opportunist whose compromises yielded the very records that keep his ruined world alive.