Pius IX. And His Time

In Short

Æneas MacDonell Dawson presents a thorough biography and institutional history of Pope Pius IX (Count Mastai Ferreti), focusing on his reign from his 1846 election to his final years in the 1870s. The narrative tracks the early career of Mastai Ferreti, his initial popularity, the rise of Italian nationalism, and the political revolts that forced him into exile at Gaeta. It covers the loss of the Papal States, the military defense of Church territories, the declaration of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, and the proceedings of the First Vatican Council. Dawson highlights the Pope's defiance against secularizing European powers, the Italian government, and Bismarck's Kulturkampf, framing Pius IX as an unyielding, principled defender of the Church's spiritual and temporal sovereignty.

The Story

The chronicle opens with the early life of John Mary Count Mastai Ferreti, born at Sinigaglia in 1792. Intending to join the Noble Guard, young Mastai Ferreti is redirected to the priesthood by Pope Pius VII after a bout of falling-sickness leaves him. Following his ordination, he devotes his early years to managing a Roman orphanage founded by John Bonghi, using his personal inheritance to care for destitute children. His exceptional character and intellect mark him early for high ecclesiastical office, eventually leading to his elevation to the Papacy as Pius IX in 1846.

Upon ascending the papal throne, Pius IX enacts reforms and amnesty that draw initial praise from liberals across Europe. However, this period of harmony proves brief as revolutionary fervor sweeps through Italy. Agitators and political figures—including Padre Gavazzi, Sterbini, Ciceruacchio, and Prince Canino—rally volunteers in Rome to wage war against Austria. Pius IX insists that papal forces remain strictly defensive and avoid crossing the frontier. Despite his explicit instructions, military commanders like General Durando issue proclamations falsely claiming that the Pontiff has blessed a war against Austrian forces, driving the movement past papal control.

As public order deteriorates, Pius IX appoints Count Rossi to form a resolute constitutional ministry to stabilize the state. Rossi prepares an energetic address asserting that the Papacy is not the enemy of constitutional liberty, but before he can deliver it to the Legislative Chambers, political turmoil culminates in his assassination and an armed demonstration against the Quirinal Palace. Forced to flee Rome, Pius IX takes refuge in exile at Gaeta.

International intervention follows. French troops, defended by French parliamentary orators like Montalembert, defeat the Roman Republic and restore the Pope to Rome. Meanwhile, Pius IX works to reorganize Church structures globally, establishing a formal diocesan hierarchy in England to replace the century-old system of vicars-apostolic, and resolving a long-standing colonial schism in Goa, India.

Despite foreign troop support, the Papal States face continuous pressure from the Kingdom of Piedmont and Premier Cavour. Papal military leaders, led by General Lamoriciere and Count de Merode, organize an international force of volunteer Zouaves to defend the Pope's domains. However, Piedmontese forces invade and annex papal territories, including Romagna, Perugia, and Ancona. Dawson defends the papal military action and condemns Piedmontese justifications, highlighting incidents such as the defense of Subiaco and the Battle of Monte-Libretti, where small bands of Zouaves fight Garibaldian forces.

The narrative shifts to major doctrinal developments. In 1849, Pius IX issues an encyclical consulting world bishops on the Immaculate Conception, leading to its formal definition. Later, in 1867, Rome hosts the eighteenth centenary of the martyrdom of SS. Peter and Paul, followed by the convocation of the First Vatican Council. Despite opposition from secular press and non-Catholic powers, the Council defines the dogma of Papal Infallibility regarding ex cathedra pronouncements on faith and morals.

In 1870, Piedmontese forces occupy Rome, ending the temporal power of the Papacy. Pius IX rejects the Italian government's "law of guarantees" and financial subsidies, choosing instead to rely on voluntary international contributions known as Peter's Pence. In his final years, he faces the suppression of religious orders in South America, anti-clerical legislation in Mexico, and Otto von Bismarck's anti-Catholic May laws in Prussia. Supported by his long-time Secretary of State, Cardinal Antonelli, and Vicar of Rome, Cardinal Patrizi, Pius IX maintains his stance until his death, remaining an unbending spiritual figure in an altered political landscape.

How It Unfolds

A vocation discovered Count Mastai Ferreti abandons his military ambitions due to ill health, enters the priesthood on the advice of Pope Pius VII, and spends his early ministry caring for Roman orphans before rising in the Church hierarchy.

Revolution breaks out in Rome Nationalist agitators and military officers push for war against Austria, misrepresenting the Pope's defensive orders and leading threatening demonstrations against the Quirinal Palace.

Assassination and exile The murder of minister Count Rossi disrupts efforts to establish a stable constitutional government, prompting Pius IX to flee Rome for refuge at Gaeta while foreign powers intervene.

Restoration and global expansion French forces dismantle the short-lived Roman Republic, allowing the Pope to return, re-establish the English hierarchy, and bring an end to the schism in Goa.

The fall of the Papal States Piedmontese troops invade papal territory, defeating General Lamoriciere's small volunteer army despite fierce resistance by Papal Zouaves at locations like Monte-Libretti.

The Vatican Council and Infallibility Bishops assemble in Rome for the First Vatican Council, where, amidst intense global debate, they formally define the dogma of Papal Infallibility for ex cathedra teachings.

The final confrontation Following the loss of Rome in 1870, Pius IX rejects government funds, survives his closest advisers, and spends his remaining years protesting anti-clerical laws in Germany, South America, and Italy.

The People

• Pius IX (John Mary Count Mastai Ferreti): The central figure who seeks to fulfill his duty as both spiritual head of the Catholic Church and temporal sovereign of the Papal States. He resists political pressure to join aggressive wars, faces exile, loses his secular kingdom, and focuses on defining Church dogma and maintaining ecclesiastical independence.
• Count Rossi: A grave, resolute minister chosen by Pius IX to lead a constitutional government and restore order in Rome. He aims to present a bold, conciliatory address to the Legislative Chambers but is assassinated before he can deliver it.
• General Durando: Commander of the papal volunteer forces who disobeys the Pope's strict defensive mandate. He issues a proclamation at Bologna falsifying the Pope's wishes by asserting that Pius IX has blessed a crusade against Austria.
• General Lamoriciere: A French military officer who accepts command of the Papal Zouaves at the request of Count de Merode. Knowing victory is unlikely against Piedmont, he organizes and leads the Pope's defensive forces until overwhelmed.
• Count de Montalembert: A French statesman and orator who fiercely defends the French military expedition to Rome before the National Assembly, arguing that protecting the Pope's independence is essential for European civilization.
• Cardinal Antonelli: The Pope's devoted Secretary of State for twenty-six years. He manages papal diplomacy through revolutions, loss of territory, and exile, remaining steadfast against political attacks until his death shortly before the Pope's own.

In Its Own Voice

"The Papacy, however, unlike all temporal sovereignties, was able to sustain so great a loss."

The author reflects in the Preface on the resilience of the Holy See after losing its long-held temporal lands.

"He saw that vice was hailed, as if it were virtue, wickedness uplifted, as if it were morality atheism, proclaimed aloud, as if it were religion..."

An Italian orator describes how Daniel O'Connell's early observations of the French Revolution shaped his lifelong distrust of violent rebellion.

"I have, indeed, great need of money... As it is a portion of the property that has been stolen from me, I could only accept it as restitution money."

Pius IX explicitly rejects the financial compensation offered to him by the Italian government under the law of guarantees.

What It's Really About

Dawson’s work centers on the fundamental conflict between temporal authority and spiritual independence during a period of rapid secularization. The text argues that the Papacy’s temporal power, while not a divine dogma in itself, served as a necessary practical shield to guarantee that the Head of the Church remained entirely free from the domination of any single secular government.

Beyond territorial disputes, the book examines the rise of nineteenth-century nationalism and radical republicanism, contrasting them with traditional ecclesiastical order. Dawson presents revolutionary movements as fundamentally anti-religious and chaotic, arguing that genuine liberty cannot exist without respect for divine authority. Through its detailed account of dogmatic declarations—such as the Immaculate Conception and Papal Infallibility—the narrative asserts that while secular thrones and borders crumble, the Catholic Church maintains an unbroken continuity of teaching and moral authority across the globe.

Why Read It Today

This volume offers readers an unapologetically ultramontane, nineteenth-century perspective on one of the most transformative periods in modern European and Catholic history. Rather than presenting an impartial, modern historical survey, Dawson writes as an ardent defender of the Papacy. The book is particularly valuable for those seeking to understand how conservative Catholic contemporaries viewed the Italian Unification (Risorgimento), the loss of the Papal States, and the major political feuds with figures like Bismarck and Cavour.

The prose reflects the rhetorical conventions of its era, rich in formal speeches, parliamentary debates, and official ecclesiastical pronouncements. Modern readers should anticipate detailed political and military descriptions, extended quotes from contemporary figures, and a firm ideological stance that paints revolutionary movements in stark, negative terms. Despite its clear bias and dense historical detail, the narrative remains a vivid, primary-adjacent document that illuminates the deep religious and political divides of the nineteenth century.