Plutarch's Lives, Volume 4 (of 4)

In Short

This final volume brings together Plutarch’s biographical studies of ancient Greece and Rome, spanning figures from Spartan reformers like Agis and Kleomenes to Roman statesmen such as Cicero, Brutus, and Mark Antony. Rather than offering a standard military or administrative history, the text presents narrative biographies structured to highlight personal morality, psychological choices, and political ambitions. Across these lives, readers observe the downfall of democratic institutions, the rise of autocracy, the mechanics of civil strife, and the tragic missteps of idealists and tyrants alike. The work has endured across centuries because it evaluates history through a deeply human lens, treating statecraft as an arena of moral choice. Its vivid scenes—from public speeches on the Rostra to naval spectacles, backroom conspiracies, and military disasters—make ancient political life feel immediate and instructive for any era.

The Story

The text opens with the Spartan lives, detailing how Agis and Kleomenes attempt to revive the ancient, rigorous Laconian discipline. Agis surrendered his personal estate to a common stock to relieve debt and redistribute land, seeking to restore the simple Laconian way of living and military training. Kleomenes continued these radical measures by re-organizing the citizenry, introducing the Macedonian pike, and reinstating communal meals and martial exercises for the youth. In his campaigns against the Achæans, Kleomenes demonstrated his army’s strict discipline—keeping his forces entirely free from actors, jugglers, and buffoonery—and went so far as to erect a temporary theatre in enemy territory merely to mock his opponents' weakness.

The focus then shifts to the Roman Republic, examining the populist reforms of the Gracchi brothers. Tiberius and Caius Gracchus sought land reform and relief for the lower classes, but their efforts sparked intense political friction. Tiberius pursued a sedate, mild style of public address, whereas Caius operated with impassioned vehemence on the rostra, moving restlessly and pulling his toga from his shoulder. When Caius took sail for Libya to found a colony at Carthage, his political enemies, led by Livius Drusus, eroded his popular support at home by attacking his allies, such as Fulvius. Suspicion and political murder escalated, fracturing the Republic's traditional governance.

In Greece, Demosthenes strove to organize a united resistance against the rising power of Philip of Macedon. Utilizing his oratorical skill, Demosthenes persuaded the Athenians to drive Macedonian forces from Euboea and send relief to Byzantium. He traveled throughout the Greek cities to form an alliance of thousands of infantry and cavalry. His hardest task was winning over the neighboring Thebans, who were inclined toward Philip, yet he succeeded in bringing them into the coalition as Greece prepared for a decisive struggle.

Parallel to Demosthenes stands Cicero, whose career captured the final, desperate collapse of the Roman Republic. As consul, Cicero uncovered the conspiracy of Catilina. Exhorted by private warnings of an assassination plot at his own doorstep, Cicero convened the Senate, confronted Catilina directly, and forced him to leave the city to join his armed rebels outside Rome. Decades later, following the death of Julius Caesar, Cicero found himself in dangerous opposition to Mark Antony. Though Cicero initially attempted to depart for Greece, he returned to Rome amidst vast public acclaim, only to face open hostility from Antony, who sent soldiers to threaten his home and pushed Rome into further factional warfare upon the arrival of the young Caesar.

The narrative expands into the grander, more tempestuous careers of the Hellenistic kings and Roman triumvirs. Demetrius Poliorketes displayed enormous mechanical ingenuity, building massive siege engines and ships of fifteen and sixteen banks of oars that awed both friends and enemies. Yet his turbulent career ended in military disaster and famine; reduced to extreme want in Cilicia, he was ultimately cornered by Seleukus. Mark Antony’s life unfolded on an even larger imperial stage, dominated by his fateful alliance with Cleopatra. When Cleopatra arrived at the river Cydnus in a gilded vessel with purple sails and silver oars, surrounded by lights and perfumes, she captivated Antony. Their combined forces eventually engaged in a global struggle for sole power against Octavian Caesar, leading to their downfall and the subsequent reorganization of the Roman imperial lineage through Octavia's family line.

Finally, the text explores the bloody struggles surrounding the end of the Republic and the Persian court. Dion led an uprising to liberate Syracuse from tyranny, welcomed by citizens after forty-two years of despotism as his troops entered through the city gates. Marcus Brutus, a devoted student who epitomized Polybius even on the eve of battle, joined Pompey out of civic duty, later coming into sharp conflict with Cassius at Sardis before their final stand. In the East, Artaxerxes faced the revolt of his brother Cyrus, whose rebel army marched to the plain of Cunaxa against the vast, disciplined line of the Persian king. Across all these accounts, the arc of political life moves inexorably from idealist reform to violent factionalism, tyranny, and the eventual rise of single rulers.

How It Unfolds

The Spartan revival Kleomenes reorganizes the Spartan state by placing his own inheritance into a common pool, redistributing land, and restoring traditional Laconian discipline. He arms four thousand infantry with the two-handed Macedonian pike and reinstates the ancient gymnasia and shared meals.

Mocking the enemy During an invasion of Megalopolis, Kleomenes captures a troupe of actors and builds a temporary theatre in enemy territory to mock his opponents. He maintains strict austerity within his own ranks, keeping his camp entirely free from performers, dancers, and licentious entertainment.

The Gracchi reform effort Tiberius and Caius Gracchus attempt to reshape Roman agrarian policy, though their contrasting styles and separate political careers weaken their joint impact. Caius delivers impassioned speeches on the rostra, utilizing a slave with a musical instrument to help moderate his voice when carried away by anger.

Intrigue and Roman factionalism While Caius Gracchus is away in Libya supervising the colonization of Carthage, Livius Drusus gains ground with the Roman populace by undermining Caius's political allies. Mysterious deaths and unpunished crimes, including the suspicious demise of Scipio Africanus, deepen the divisions within Rome.

Rallying Greece against Macedon Demosthenes travels among the Greek city-states, using his eloquence to forge a coalition against Philip of Macedon. He successfully resolves longstanding rivalries to bring both Athens and the formidable Theban army into a unified military league.

Unmasking the Catilinarian plot Cicero receives warning of a plot against his life and turns back Catilina in the Roman Senate. He orders the conspirator to leave the city, creating a clear boundary between peaceful governance and armed rebellion.

Rivalry with Antony Following Caesar's death, Cicero returns to Rome to support the Republic, drawing the wrath of Mark Antony. Antony threatens Cicero's home with soldiers, establishing a tense standoff that worsens when the young Caesar arrives to claim his inheritance.

The engines of Demetrius Demetrius constructs massive war machinery and giant warships, earning a reputation for inventive grandiosity. His campaigns eventually falter due to famine and disease, leaving his depleted army trapped by Seleukus near the Taurus mountains.

The luxury of Cleopatra Cleopatra sails up the river Cydnus on a gilded ship disguised as Venus, captivating Mark Antony with an elaborate display of lights and banquet luxury. Her personal charm and command of languages secure her hold over Antony's military and political decisions.

Tension before battle Marcus Brutus and Cassius meet at Sardis, entering a private room where they engage in heated arguments, accusations, and tearful reconciliations. Their tense debate is interrupted by Marcus Favonius, who forces his way inside using cynical humor to break the mood.

The clash at Cunaxa Artaxerxes advances slowly and silently with a massive army to meet the rebellion of his brother Cyrus. The Persian king posts scythed chariots in front of his battle line to disrupt the advancing rebel ranks.

Fall of the Roman factions Following defeat in the civil wars, Otho's generals gather at Bedriacum to negotiate terms with Cæcina. The soldiers lay down their arms, fraternize with the incoming troops, and swear fealty to Vitellius, bringing an end to the immediate campaign.

The People

• Kleomenes: A Spartan king who seeks to restore the ancient laws of Lykurgus to his city. He wants to revitalize Spartan power through land redistribution and strict military discipline, but faces constant opposition from neighboring Greek states and regional leagues. He ends his career as an active military commander operating with austere, single-minded focus.
• Caius Gracchus: A passionate Roman tribune who wants to implement land reform, found colonies, and curtail the senate's power. Standing in his way are the conservative senatorial faction and political rivals like Livius Drusus, who turn the populace against his allies. His impetuous style and political isolation leave him vulnerable to republic-shattering hostility.
• Demosthenes: An Athenian orator who wants to unite the fragmented Greek cities against the rising military power of Philip of Macedon. He must overcome historical jealousies, local rivalries, and pro-Macedonian factions within neighboring states like Thebes. Through relentless diplomacy, he successfully builds a formidable coalition.
• Cicero: A Roman statesman and orator committed to preserving traditional republican governance and civil authority. He is opposed by armed conspirators like Catilina and later by the dictatorial ambitions of Mark Antony. Though celebrated by the public, his political maneuvering fails to prevent the total militarization of Roman politics.
• Demetrius: A Hellenistic prince driven by ambition, grand vision, and a passion for engineering massive siege weapons and warships. His goals are continually hindered by rival kings, logistical failures, and devastating outbreaks of famine among his troops, leaving him reduced to desperation in Cilicia.
• Mark Antony: A Roman general and triumvir who seeks absolute power over the Roman empire. His path is shaped by his luxurious romance with Cleopatra and his escalating feud with Octavian Caesar over revenues, territories, and military command, ultimately leading to political and military ruin.
• Marcus Brutus: A studious, idealistic Roman commander who prioritizes civic duty and public interest above personal ties, even allying with his father's murderer, Pompey. He faces strategic disagreements with his co-commander Cassius and the chaotic collapse of the republican cause, remaining devoted to his philosophical principles until the end.

In Its Own Voice

When Kleomenes restored the old Spartan discipline, he insisted on absolute martial focus, ensuring his camp was completely free from the distractions common to other armies:

At this period his was the only army, Greek or foreign, which was not attended by actors, jugglers, dancing-girls, and singers; but he kept it free from all licentiousness and buffoonery, as the younger men were nearly always being practised in martial exercises, while the elders acted as their instructors; and when they were at leisure they amused themselves with witty retorts and sententious Laconian pleasantries.

During the intense political conflicts of the late Republic, the oratorical style of Caius Gracchus stood in stark contrast to his brother's calm demeanor:

To remedy this fault, he employed Licinius, a well-educated slave, who used to stand behind him when he was speaking, with a musical instrument, such as is used as an accompaniment to singing, and whenever he observed that the voice of Caius was becoming harsh and broken through passion, he would produce a soft note, upon which Caius would immediately moderate his vehemence and his voice, and become calm.

Even amidst the chaos of civil war, Marcus Brutus remained untiringly devoted to his intellectual pursuits:

After being much harassed about these matters, and having scarcely by midday anointed himself and taken a little to eat, while the rest were either sleeping or engaged in thought and care about the future, he kept on writing till evening-time, making an epitome of Polybius.

What It's Really About

At its core, the text examines the delicate balance between personal character and the fate of nations. It argues that political systems are not merely abstract legal structures, but living institutions shaped entirely by the virtues, vices, passions, and moral choices of the individuals who lead them. Ambition, when unbridled by self-control or genuine virtue, repeatedly drives statesmen to become slaves to popular favor or victims of their own arrogance.

The work continually explores the tragic friction between high-minded idealism and the brutal realities of power politics. Whether through the Spartan agrarian reforms of Agis and Kleomenes, the democratic legislation of the Gracchi, or the republican defense mounted by Cicero and Brutus, noble intentions regularly founder against entrenched self-interest, factional jealousy, and mob violence. The narrative illustrates how civil strife inevitably erodes constitutional norms, transforming political debates into armed conflicts that terminate in autocracy.

Furthermore, the text offers a profound study in contrasts: mildness versus impetuosity, Spartan simplicity versus Oriental luxury, civic eloquence versus military force. By pairing Greek and Roman figures, it questions whether true greatness consists in grand conquest and mechanical ingenuity—such as that displayed by Demetrius—or in steadfast moral discipline and service to the commonwealth.

Why Read It Today

This work speaks directly to modern readers interested in the human dynamics of political power, leadership, and institutional decay. It provides a masterclass in psychological portraiture, capturing the exact moments when great historical figures make decisions under extreme stress. Reading these lives offers an intimate look at the ancient world, filled with memorable scenes—from theatrical performances staged in war zones to dramatic confrontations on the Senate floor and grand naval processions on the Cydnus.

The writing carries a plain, confident cadence that allows the historical drama to unfold naturally without unnecessary embellishment. While the text is easily scannable and rich in narrative movement, readers should be prepared for certain structural challenges. The sheer density of historical figures, ancient place names, and political offices requires attentive reading, and the extensive index and translational notes reflect nineteenth-century scholarly conventions. Additionally, the period attitudes toward warfare, autocratic rule, and public executions are presented plainly as facts of ancient life.

What stays with the reader is the striking modernity of its political dilemmas. The pressures of populism, the collapse of republican norms, the corrupting influence of absolute power, and the personal cost of political idealism remain as relevant today as they were in antiquity. Anyone who enjoys deep character studies, classic statecraft, and grand historical narrative will find this volume a deeply rewarding read.