The Cliff Ruins of Canyon de Chelly, Arizona: Sixteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1894-95, Government Printing Office, Washington, 1897, pages 73-198

In Short

This report is a foundational archaeological survey of the cliff dwellings within Arizona’s Canyon de Chelly and Canyon del Muerto. Rather than a narrative, it functions as a meticulous catalogue of stone, masonry, and geography. By examining ground plans, wall construction, and the clever, often desperate, ways inhabitants anchored their homes to sheer rock faces, the text reconstructs the daily lives and migratory patterns of the ancient Pueblo people. It remains essential for those who appreciate the intersection of geological endurance and human ingenuity in the American Southwest.

The Story

The narrative arc of the study begins with the landscape itself: a vast, arid plateau dominated by bright-red sandstone. The author sets the stage by framing Canyon de Chelly as a natural sanctuary. Because of its reliable water, potential for cultivation, and relative seclusion, the canyon served as a vital crossroads for various bands and tribes moving through the region over many centuries.

The investigation proceeds by moving from the bottom-land villages to the more precarious, high-altitude cliff dwellings. The study does not present a single, linear history but instead illustrates a layered occupation. As the reader travels through the canyons via the author’s detailed maps and descriptions, the ruins reveal themselves not as static monuments, but as evolving structures. Some sites show evidence of repeated expansion; others show defensive measures, such as walling off access points or nesting rooms in nearly unreachable caves.

The author documents the "constructive expedients" employed when builders were forced to place walls on sharply sloping rock or unstable debris. These architectural choices—using horizontal logs as ties, incorporating upright timbers, and building retaining walls—tell a story of constant adaptation. The ruins also speak to the social life of the inhabitants, evidenced by the central placement of kivas, or sacred chambers. These communal spaces, some quite large, suggest a shared life that centered around ritual even in confined, difficult spaces.

As the study nears its conclusion, the focus shifts to the later presence of the Navaho, whose burial cists are frequently found within the older, abandoned sites. The author addresses the complex question of who built these structures, ultimately arguing against any single "lost race" theory. Instead, he posits that these were the ancestors of modern Pueblo groups, part of a long, slow, and irregular migration. The study concludes with a broader synthesis, suggesting that these cliff ruins are not an anomaly but a specific response to environment and necessity. The final perspective leaves the reader with the image of a mobile, resourceful culture whose footprints—and masonry—are etched permanently into the canyon walls.

How It Unfolds

The geographical survey The author establishes the physical context by describing the homogeneity of the plateau and the striking, vertical red sandstone walls that define the canyons. These geologic features dictate the possibilities for human settlement, acting as both a protective barrier and a limiting factor for expansion.

The classification of ruins The text introduces a working taxonomy for the sites, moving from large communal houses on open ground to smaller, defensive cliff villages. This section clarifies the diversity of the architecture, noting that previous, simpler classifications often failed to capture the unique adaptations seen in this specific region.

The architectural analysis The focus turns to the technical details of the masonry, such as chinking techniques, plastering, and the ingenious use of timber beams to stabilize walls on steep cliffs. Here, the author examines how the builders overcame the inherent danger of their chosen sites, often showing where these methods succeeded and where they failed.

The investigation of kivas The author analyzes the sacred chambers, noting their central importance and their often-complex interior features. The discussion of these kivas touches on the purpose of chimney-like structures and painted wall decorations, which the author links to ceremonial needs and the determination of cardinal points.

The final synthesis The study concludes by placing the Canyon de Chelly ruins within the larger context of the ancient Pueblo region. The author argues that the settlement was a fluid, long-term process, reflecting a culture that was inherently mobile and deeply attuned to the challenges of the arid Southwest.

The People

The "people" in this work are represented primarily by the anonymous builders of the ruins. The author treats them as master observers of their environment, whose primary goal was survival and the maintenance of social and religious order in a challenging landscape. They are seen as innovators who turned the limitations of the rock—sloping surfaces and narrow ledges—into structural advantages. They wanted stability; their struggle was against the physical instability of the canyon walls and the harsh, shifting climate.

Contrasted against these ancient builders are the Navaho, mentioned throughout as the later inhabitants of the canyon. The Navaho are described as interacting with the ruins in ways that define their own relationship with the land, such as utilizing existing caves for burial cists. The author notes a form of cultural reverence or caution, observing that the Navaho often avoided the timber from the cliff ruins.

Finally, the author himself emerges as a diligent, observant presence. He is a man of the 1890s who wants to see the ruins as they were, not as myths. He respects the "ancient pueblo architect," often correcting the misconceptions of his contemporaries by grounding his claims in the physical reality of the walls. He serves as a guide, pushing the reader to look past the romanticized idea of "cliff dwellers" to appreciate the specific, practical choices of a distinct, historical civilization.

In Its Own Voice

"The characteristic landscape consists of a wide expanse of featureless plains, bounded by far-off cliffs in gorgeous colors; in the foreground a soil of bright yellow or ashy gray; over all the most brilliant sunlight, while the distant features are softened by a blue haze."

The author sets the scene for the dramatic, colorful environment that housed the cliff ruins.

"The difficulties which came from the occupancy of exceptional sites were promptly reflected in the construction, and unusual ways and methods were adopted to overcome them."

This observation highlights the link between the harshness of the terrain and the ingenuity of the builders.

"It was a slow but practically constant migratory movement with no definite end or direction in view."

The author summarizes his final conclusion regarding the nature of the people who settled the canyon.

What It's Really About

At its heart, the book is an argument for the intelligence of traditional architecture. It seeks to demystify the cliff ruins, stripping away the 19th-century fascination with "mysterious" vanished civilizations to reveal a pragmatic, highly competent culture. The central question is one of adaptation: how does a society build a stable, communal life in an environment that is geologically hostile? The author argues that the ruins are the physical record of that adaptation, showing a direct, logical line between human need—for shelter, for defense, for religious practice—and the material world. It is a meditation on the permanence of stone and the transience of the people who carved their history into it.

Why Read It Today

Readers who enjoy the slow, deliberate process of discovery will find this book deeply rewarding. It reads like a field journal, full of the excitement of a researcher walking through a landscape that feels both timeless and fragile. If you are interested in archaeology, the American Southwest, or the history of how we understand our past, this report offers a vivid window into a vanished way of life.

However, the modern reader should be prepared for the dense, technical language of the late 19th century. The book is not interested in dramatic storytelling; it is interested in the width of a doorway, the composition of mortar, and the angle of a wall. The author’s period attitudes—specifically his categorization of cultures and his sometimes patronizing framing of indigenous peoples—reflect the time in which he wrote. Yet, his commitment to empirical evidence often cuts through the prejudices of his era.

What stays with you is the physical reality of the canyon. You will leave this book with a new way of seeing stone walls and desert cliffs, understanding them not merely as scenery, but as a map of human effort. It is a quiet, precise, and profoundly respectful document of a culture that prioritized community, security, and ritual in the face of immense environmental challenges.