The History of England, from the Accession of James II

In Short

This monumental historical narrative reconstructs the turbulent downfall of King James II and the constitutional transformation known as the Glorious Revolution. Driven by an uncompromising desire to re-establish Roman Catholicism and expand royal prerogative, James alienates every major sector of English society, from Parliament and the judiciary to the Anglican clergy and his own military forces. As opposition mounts, the ruling elites forge alliances with William, Prince of Orange, whose naval expedition precipitates James's desperate flight to France. Rather than descending into prolonged civil strife, the nation's political leadership convenes to establish a new constitutional framework, crowning William and Mary co-sovereigns while codifying the Declaration of Right. The work endures because it combines granular archival detail with sweeping dramatic momentum, capturing the human frailties, legal arguments, and ideological clashes that permanently limited the power of the British monarchy. Through vivid character portraits and meticulous tracking of parliamentary debates, it transforms a pivotal transition in governance into an absorbing chronicle of power, resistance, and statutory compromise.

The Story

The reign of King James II opens at the apex of royal authority, yet rapidly dissolves as the monarch attempts to dismantle the legal safeguards protecting the established Protestant order. Determined to grant absolute relief to Roman Catholics and consolidate personal authority, James increases the standing army, defies the Test Act by appointing unsworn officers, and asserts an unbridled dispensing power over the law. He dismisses refractory judges, revokes municipal charters, and creates a new Court of High Commission to discipline the Church of England. Even conservative Roman Catholic nobility view his aggressive policies with trepidation, recognizing that attempting to force Catholic supremacy upon a deeply Protestant nation will inevitably provoke a violent political recoil.

James persists, attempting to compel compliance through systematic intimidation and court favoritism. When the Bishop of London, Henry Compton, refuses to illegally suspend an anti-Popish preacher, the King subjects Compton to the High Commission and replaces resistant ministers like Lord Treasurer Rochester. James attempts to build a counter-alliance by offering tolerance to Protestant Dissenters, using figures like the Quaker William Penn and Stephen Lobb to procure addresses of thanks, though most Puritans remain suspicious. Concurrent efforts to forcibly catholicize universities, such as installing a royal nominee at Magdalene College, Oxford, provoke fierce institutional defiance. Across the country, James purges resistant lords lieutenant and municipal officers who refuse to support the repeal of penal statutes, filling key offices with loyalists or Irish Catholic recruits.

The crisis reaches a breaking point when James orders the clergy to read his second Declaration of Indulgence from every pulpit. Archbishop Sancroft and six suffragan bishops present a humble petition begging to be excused from violating the law. Enraged, James accuses the Seven Bishops of broadcasting a standard of rebellion and commits them to the Tower of London. Their subsequent trial in the Court of King's Bench becomes a landmark struggle for legal liberty. Defended by a formidable legal team that includes the brilliant young Whig barrister John Somers, the Bishops argue that the King possesses no legal authority to suspend parliamentary statutes. When the jury returns a verdict of not guilty, ecstatic cheerings erupt across London and spread directly through the military encampments at Hounslow Heath.

Realizing his domestic forces are fundamentally disaffected—demonstrated when entire regiments lay down their pikes rather than sign engagements supporting his policies—James turns toward Ireland, where the Earl of Tyrconnel has systematically created a Celtic Catholic army. Alarmed by these developments and urged by English statesmen across the political spectrum, William, Prince of Orange, prepares a major naval armament in Holland. Flying a flag inscribed with his family motto alongside the declaration to maintain the liberties of England and the Protestant religion, William navigates his fleet across the Channel and lands at Torbay.

Support for James collapses almost instantly upon William’s arrival. Senior commanders and officers, led by figures such as Lord Cornbury, defect to the Dutch prince with entire cavalry regiments. Devastated by the betrayal of his closest advisors and military officers, James abandons his army at Salisbury and returns to London in despair. He feigns willingness to negotiate with William merely to buy time to ship his wife, Mary of Modena, and the infant Prince of Wales safely to France. Before attempting his own escape, James orders the Great Seal of the realm thrown into the Thames near Millbank to paralyze legal governance.

Although captured near Sheerness during his initial escape attempt and briefly brought back to London, James finds his authority completely extinguished. Recognizing his isolation, he flees a second time to France, arriving at Saint Germains. There, King Lewis XIV receives the exiled monarch with extraordinary personal courtesy and an annual pension, while according Mary of Modena every honor due to royalty.

In England, the collapse of executive power leaves the nation without a functioning administration. To avert anarchy, a Convention Parliament composed of Lords and Commons meets in London to deliberate on the state of the realm. Moderate Tories favor declaring a regency or treating James's flight as a simple resignation, whereas radical Whigs contend that the King violated the original contract between prince and people, thereby forfeiting the throne. John Somers and other pragmatic leaders forge a vital compromise: they declare the throne vacant due to James's abdication and misgovernment, while simultaneously drafting the Declaration of Right to explicitly limit royal prerogative and protect parliamentary privileges. Upon accepting these fundamental constitutional conditions, William and Mary are proclaimed joint sovereigns of England, bringing the dramatic contest over law, religion, and executive power to a peaceful, permanent resolution.

How It Unfolds

The King asserts divine right James II opens his reign intent on consolidating absolute monarchical authority and lifting restrictions on Roman Catholics. He demands Parliament fund a permanent standing army while defying the Test Act by appointing unsworn Catholic officers. When Parliament resists, he prorogues the assembly and asserts an unbridled dispensing power to set aside statutory laws.

The court fractures over religion To enforce his policies against an unwilling Anglican establishment, James creates a new Court of High Commission. He subjects the Bishop of London, Henry Compton, to arbitrary trial and strips refractory judges of their seats on the bench. Internal court rivalries intensify as staunch Protestants like Lord Treasurer Rochester are dismissed for refusing to abjure their faith.

Resisting the royal mandate The crown seeks to force Roman Catholic control onto established educational centers, culminating in a fierce confrontation at Magdalene College, Oxford. The Fellows refuse the King's demand to elect a royal nominee, standing firm on their statutory oaths despite royal threats. Mediation efforts by William Penn fail completely, exposing the growing rift between the monarch and the nation's traditional leadership.

Purging the local leadership Determined to pack a future Parliament with compliant members, James sends regulators to purge local corporations and county administrations. Prominent nobility, including the Earl of Dorset and the Duke of Somerset, are dismissed from their lord lieutenancies for refusing to support royal directives. To maintain military control, James increasingly turns to Irish Catholic regiments under the Earl of Tyrconnel.

The Seven Bishops take a stand When James commands the clergy to read his Declaration of Indulgence from every pulpit, Archbishop Sancroft and six suffragan bishops present a formal petition against the order. James condemns the petition as a standard of rebellion and orders the prelates imprisoned in the Tower. Their arrest galvanizes public sympathy across all social ranks and unifies Whigs and Tories in defense of the law.

A verdict echoes across the nation The trial of the Seven Bishops in the Court of King's Bench becomes a defining battle over constitutional limits. A formidable defense team, featuring the rising lawyer John Somers, successfully demonstrates that petitioning the Crown is a lawful right. The jury's verdict of not guilty triggers massive public celebrations, and even the King's soldiers at Hounslow Heath cheer the news openly.

An invitation across the sea With the military unreliable and the political elite alienated, prominent English leaders initiate secret communications with William, Prince of Orange. William equips a formidable Dutch fleet and army, framing his intervention as a defense of English liberty and Protestantism. His frigate hoists a banner declaring his commitment to maintain the ancient laws and faith of the realm.

The Dutch fleet lands William lands at Torbay and begins a deliberate advance through the western counties without encountering immediate armed resistance. Defection rapidly destroys James's command structure, beginning when Lord Cornbury leads cavalry regiments over to the Prince's camp. Seeing his officers and noble supporters abandon him, James suffers a complete collapse of authority and retreat.

Flight and the lost seal Desperate to prevent the establishment of a settled government under William, James resolves to destroy legal administration and flee the country. He secures the safe passage of Queen Mary of Modena and the infant Prince of Wales to France before escaping Whitehall in secret. As he crosses the Thames at Millbank, he casts the Great Seal into the river to paralyze judicial machinery.

Exile at Saint Germains After being captured near Sheerness and briefly returned to London, James flees a second time to France. King Lewis XIV receives the fallen monarch at Saint Germains with magnificent hospitality, providing an annual pension and lavish accommodations. In exile, James maintains a shadow court entirely dependent on French diplomatic and financial patronage.

The Convention convenes In London, an extraordinary assembly of Lords and Commons meets as a Convention Parliament to resolve the constitutional crisis. Members split between Whigs seeking to declare the throne forfeited through tyranny and Tories attempting to maintain dynastic continuity through a regency or subtle legal fictions. The urgency of impending foreign war forces both factions toward a practical settlement.

A new constitutional order John Somers and Whig leaders draft the Declaration of Right, defining the ancient rights of subjects and placing explicit limits on royal prerogative. The Convention offers the crown to William and Mary jointly, strictly conditional upon their adherence to these statutory principles. Their acceptance establishes a constitutional monarchy and permanently secures parliamentary supremacy.

The People

King James II seeks absolute prerogative power and the complete rehabilitation of Roman Catholicism in England. Stymied at every turn by statutory laws, parliamentary opposition, and the deep-seated Protestantism of his subjects, he responds with increasingly arbitrary purges and illegal declarations. His stubborn refusal to compromise alienates his army and political allies, transforming a once-secure monarch into an isolated fugitive who ends his life as a pensioner dependent on French charity at Saint Germains.

Queen Mary of Modena desires the preservation of her husband's crown, the security of her infant son, and personal respect within a hostile court. Stood in the way by James's public infidelities with mistresses like Catharine Sedley and the intense anti-Catholic sentiment of the nation, she endures profound emotional anguish. Ultimately forced to flee her kingdom in disguise, she finds refuge in France, where she receives the exquisite courtly devotion of Lewis XIV.

Lord Treasurer Rochester seeks to maintain his supreme political influence, lucrative salary, and high office while remaining a devoted member of the Church of England. Hindered by the treacherous machinations of rival courtier Sunderland and the King's unyielding demand that he convert to Catholicism, Rochester attempts desperate legal compromises to save his position. He fails to satisfy either his conscience or his master, ending his career stripped of the Treasurer's white staff and exiled from power.

William Penn aims to secure broad religious liberty for Quakers and Nonconformists by leveraging his personal friendship with the King. However, his noble goal is continually undermined by James's authoritarian methods and his own willingness to broker dubious political compromises, such as attempting to buy off the Fellows of Magdalene College. Rather than achieving a lasting legacy of tolerance, Penn emerges from the reign with his moral standing tarnished and his motives widely distrusted.

John Somers desires to re-establish the traditional liberties of England through rigorous legal reform without provoking revolutionary chaos. Blocked initially by his humble origins, youth, and the entrenched political divide between Whigs and Tories, he uses his brilliant legal mind and deep historical learning during the trial of the Seven Bishops to capture national attention. By drafting the Declaration of Right, he successfully guides the Convention Parliament to a constitutional settlement, transforming himself into one of the nation's foremost statesmen.

William, Prince of Orange wants to mobilize English naval and financial resources to counter the aggressive expansionism of Lewis XIV while protecting the Protestant succession. Standing in his path are hazardous winter tempests, the delicate political divisions of the English Parliament, and the immense logistical risk of a foreign invasion. Through extraordinary personal composure and diplomatic skill, he lands successfully, unites the English opposition, and transforms from a foreign stadtholder into co-sovereign of the realm.

In Its Own Voice

Addressing the complex historical motives of the traditional Roman Catholic nobility, the text observes that generations of severe penal laws and civic exclusion might easily have tempted them to seize immediate political supremacy and personal retaliation once a monarch of their own faith inherited the crown.

"Men who had been so long and cruelly oppressed might have been pardoned if they had eagerly seized the first opportunity of obtaining at once greatness and revenge."

Examining the fundamental ethical and constitutional arguments underlying the Glorious Revolution, the narrative explicitly compares a nation's right to resist an oppressive government to an individual citizen's legal and moral right to employ lethal force when facing violent assault without judicial protection.

"The right which a people has to resist a bad government bears a close analogy to the right which an individual, in the absence of legal protection, has to slay an assailant. In both cases the evil must be grave. In both cases all regular and peaceable modes of defence must be exhausted before the aggrieved party resorts to extremities."

When an enraged King James II repeatedly accuses the Seven Bishops of broadcasting a standard of rebellion by petitioning against his Declaration of Indulgence, Bishop Thomas Ken maintains remarkable personal dignity while explaining why divine law must supersede absolute royal obedience.

"We have two duties to perform, our duty to God, and our duty to your Majesty. We honour you, but we fear God."

What It's Really About

At its core, this work explores the delicate balance between monarchical prerogative and statutory law, examining how a nation maintains constitutional liberty when its executive authority actively subverts the legal order. It argues that stable governance rests not upon absolute power or passive obedience, but upon a sacred original contract between the prince and the governed. When James II attempts to override parliamentary acts through his claimed dispensing power and enforce compliance through a standing army, he fractures the unspoken consensus that binds English society together.

The narrative demonstrates that religious faith and constitutional law are inextricably linked in seventeenth-century politics. James’s aggressive campaign to re-establish Catholicism fails precisely because hatred of arbitrary rule and devotion to Protestantism have penetrated every stratum of society, uniting rival political factions, common soldiers, and ecclesiastical leaders in joint resistance. Beneath the dramatic court intrigues lies a profound inquiry into the ethics of rebellion: at what precise point does systematic misgovernment justify resistance, and how can a society alter its ruler without destroying the rule of law itself? The work answers by framing the Glorious Revolution as a masterclass in conservative reform, demonstrating that lasting political progress is achieved not by sweeping ideological destruction, but by reclaiming ancient liberties and embedding them within statutory guarantees.

Why Read It Today

This historical masterwork will captivate anyone fascinated by constitutional crisis, statecraft, and the high-stakes human drama of political collapse. Reading it feels like sitting beside an exceptionally articulate, sharp-eyed observer who possesses both an exhaustive knowledge of legal precedent and a dramatist's flair for character. The prose moves with sweeping rhetorical energy, transforming tedious parliamentary debates, judicial appointments, and diplomatic dispatches into vivid struggles over the future of free institutions. What stays with the reader is the chilling realization of how rapidly institutional safeguards can erode when an ambitious ruler tests the limits of executive power, alongside the memorable portraits of individuals—from the steadfast Seven Bishops to the treacherous courtier Sunderland—navigating intense moral compromise.

However, modern readers must approach the text with an awareness of its distinct stylistic and period challenges. The narrative demands patience: its sheer length and uncompromising density require navigating intricate details of seventeenth-century ecclesiastical disputes, obsolete legal maneuvers like the dispensing power, and obscure parliamentary procedures. Furthermore, the prose reflects strong, unreserved editorial judgments. The author writes with unabashed partisan conviction, frequently measuring historical figures against strict moral standards and displaying an undeniable Whig bias that treats the victory of parliamentary constitutionalism as an inevitable triumph of liberty. The treatment of religious controversies also carries the unvarnished hostility of its time, particularly regarding Roman Catholicism and court cabals, where the text unhesitatingly attributes insincerity or fanaticism to historical actors like John Dryden or Stephen Lobb.

Yet these very difficulties enrich the experience. The author's vivid, unapologetic voice and refusal to reduce history to neutral abstractions give the work its enduring authority. For readers willing to immerse themselves in its expansive scope, the text offers an unforgettable exploration of how legal traditions are tested, defended, and ultimately transformed during moments of supreme national peril.