The History of England, from the Accession of James II

In Short

This historical narrative examines the turbulent aftermath of the Revolution of 1688, tracing King William III's struggle to secure his throne against internal treason and external French ambition. The work details the military campaigns across Ireland and Flanders, from the hard-fought Battle of Aghrim and the capitulation of Limerick to the bloody engagements at Steenkirk and the siege of Namur. Beyond the battlefield, the narrative delves into the fierce political conflicts within Westminster, where Whigs and Tories contend over parliamentary privileges, treason trial regulations, and official salaries. It chronicles the rise of essential administrative institutions, including the foundation of the Bank of England, the overhaul of national coinage, and the gradual emergence of a cohesive Cabinet system. Throughout, the text scrutinizes the complex motives of statesmen, church leaders, and conspirators who shape the era. The work endures because it combines granular detail of administrative and military mechanics with a sweeping analytical narrative, revealing how modern constitutional government, public credit, and party politics were forged amid persistent crisis.

The Story

The narrative opens with King William III establishing his foreign policy on the Continent while navigating a complex network of European alliances. Seeking to hold together a fragile coalition against France, William travels to Holland to meet with foreign representatives, secures toleration for the Waldenses, and directs military operations during the siege of Mons. Simultaneously, domestic security in England is threatened by Jacobite conspiracies. Conspirators such as Lord Preston and Ashton engage in secret intrigues to restore the exiled King James II. When the plot is uncovered, Ashton is executed, while Preston wavers, confesses, and is eventually pardoned. The schism within the Church of England deepens as nonjuring prelates like Sancroft refuse allegiance to the new monarchs, leading to the appointment of Tillotson as Archbishop of Canterbury and the creation of a separate episcopal succession among the nonjurors.

In Ireland, the conflict between Williamite forces and Jacobite loyalists reaches a decisive climax. The campaign moves from the fall of Ballymore and Athlone to the crucial Battle of Aghrim, where General Ginkell's English and Huguenot forces confront the Irish and French army commanded by Saint Ruth. Despite fierce resistance along treacherous terrain, the sudden death of Saint Ruth by a cannon ball leaves the Irish army without direction at a critical juncture. The defeat leads directly to the second siege of Limerick. Negotiations between the Irish chiefs and the besiegers produce the Capitulation of Limerick, ending formal military resistance on Irish soil. Irish soldiers are forced to choose between remaining in their homeland or volunteering for service in France, resulting in the mass departure of troops known as the flight of the wild geese, leaving Ireland subdued under harsh statutory restrictions that exclude Roman Catholics from public trust and parliament.

Political friction intensifies within the English Parliament as members debate official salaries, East India trade monopolies, and the regulation of trials in cases of high treason. Treasonous intrigues extend into the highest ranks of William's administration. The Earl of Marlborough secretly corresponds with the exiled court at Saint Germains, offering to defect with English troops or use parliament to expel William. His double-dealing is exposed by Jacobite sources, leading to his temporary imprisonment in the Tower of London and a severe rupture between Queen Mary and her sister Anne. Meanwhile, the threat of French invasion looms as Louis XIV prepares an expedition to restore James. However, the victory of the combined English and Dutch fleets at the Battle of La Hogue destroys the French invasion force, bringing widespread rejoicings throughout England.

The government continuously confronts dangerous internal plots and administrative challenges. The discovery of a conspiracy by Barclay, Charnock, and Parkyns to assassinate King William near London sparks nationwide outrage. In response, hundreds of thousands of citizens across every English county sign the Association to defend William as the rightful king and avenge any attempt on his life. State trials and parliamentary proceedings follow, most notably the high-stakes bill of attainder against Sir John Fenwick, which provokes intense debates over the legal requirement for two witnesses in treason cases. Concurrently, the state addresses a severe monetary crisis caused by widespread coin clipping. The government introduces milled money struck in the Tower of London, but the simultaneous circulation of clipped and full-weight coins illustrates Gresham’s law, as good money is hoarded or exported while bad money remains in trade.

To fund the war effort and stabilize public finance, the administration adopts revolutionary monetary measures. Parliament approves the establishment of the Bank of England through the Tonnage Act, borrowing twelve hundred thousand pounds at eight per cent interest. This initiative sparks fierce public debate, with critics fearing either republicanism or royal tyranny, leading to a statutory clause prohibiting the Bank from advancing money to the Crown without parliamentary approval. In parliament, significant constitutional legislation passes, including the Triennial Bill limiting the duration of parliaments, which William signs despite great personal agitation.

Military operations in Flanders continue with brutal encounters. At the Battle of Steenkirk, English troops under Mackay suffer heavy losses due to the inaction of Count Solmes, while the siege and capture of Namur under Cohorn and William demonstrates the growing effectiveness of the allied army against French fortifications. On the political front, the government evolves structurally. Guided by Sunderland’s advice, William reluctantly moves away from mixed administrations and relies on a unified Whig ministry led by figures like Somers and Montague. This political restructuring fosters the development of modern Cabinet government, aligning executive administration with the parliamentary majority and culminating in the Peace of Ryswick, which secures William’s monarchy and establishes a new constitutional equilibrium.

How It Unfolds

• The coalition convenes

King William III travels to Holland to lead diplomatic negotiations at the Hague and maintain a delicate European alliance against Louis XIV. He works to secure religious toleration for the Waldenses while confronting the inherent frictions and logistical obstacles of a multi-nation coalition. The surrender of Mons to French forces quickly highlights the difficulty of coordinating foreign allies.

• Treason at home

English officials uncover a dangerous Jacobite conspiracy involving Lord Preston, Turner, and Ashton, who seek to restore James II to the throne. Ashton undergoes execution for his role in the treason, whereas Preston hesitates, yields full confessions to the council, and ultimately receives a royal pardon. Simultaneously, the refusal of nonjuring bishops like Sancroft to take oaths creates a lasting schism within the Church of England.

• The Irish campaign closes

Williamite forces commanded by General Ginkell press into Ireland, taking Athlone before confronting the Irish army at Aghrim. The sudden death of French commander Saint Ruth during the battle shatters Irish coordination and causes a chaotic retreat. The subsequent Capitulation of Limerick ends the war, prompting thousands of Irish troops to volunteer for French service while leaving Ireland under Protestant legislative control.

• Marlborough’s double game

The Earl of Marlborough secretly corresponds with the exiled Jacobite court, offering to manipulate the army and parliament to overthrow William. When Jacobite agents reveal his double-dealing, Marlborough is stripped of his offices and sent to the Tower of London. The scandal creates a severe personal and political rupture between Queen Mary and her sister, Princess Anne.

• Victory at La Hogue

French preparations for a direct naval invasion of England culminate in James II assembling troops on the coast while relying on naval support. The English and Dutch fleets unite, maintaining their loyalty and decisively defeating the French fleet at the Battle of La Hogue. The victory eliminates the immediate threat of invasion and inspires widespread public celebrations across England.

• Tragedy in the Highlands

Efforts to quiet the rebellious Scottish clans involve distributing monetary inducements alongside strict deadlines for swearing allegiance to the new crown. Delay and administrative hostility surrounding the MacDonalds of Glencoe lead directly to a brutal military massacre of the clan. The atrocity provokes severe political backlash and exposes the harsh realities of Highland pacification.

• The plot against the king

Sir George Barclay receives a broad commission from James II and organizes a conspiracy of forty men to assassinate King William near London. Upon the discovery of the plot, public indignation sweeps the nation, prompting hundreds of thousands of citizens to sign the Association. This document pledges signatories to defend William's life and avenge his death, consolidating popular support behind the monarchy.

• The crisis of the currency

Severe coin clipping severely debases the English silver currency, threatening internal trade and public credit. The government attempts to remedy the crisis by introducing machine-milled money produced in the Tower of London. However, because milled and clipped coins circulate at the same face value, full-weight coins are systematically melted down or exported, leaving only light coin in domestic circulation.

• Creation of the Bank

Facing immense war expenditures, Parliament passes the Tonnage Act to incorporate the Bank of England and raise a loan of twelve hundred thousand pounds. The proposal triggers intense debate between critics who fear republicanism or crown despotism and supporters who emphasize financial necessity. To prevent royal abuse, the act explicitly forbids the Bank from lending money to the monarch without parliamentary consent.

• The siege of Namur

Allied forces under William and engineer Cohorn conduct a grueling siege against the French-held fortress of Namur. Despite French efforts to divert the allies by bombarding Brussels, the citadel surrenders after heavy casualties on both sides. The capture of Namur marks a significant military turning point, proving that allied forces can reduce a first-class fortress defended by France.

• A unified cabinet emerges

Recognizing the instability of divided governments, William adopts Lord Sunderland's advice to form a cohesive administration selected exclusively from the Whig majority. Prominent leaders such as Somers and Montague assume key posts, aligning executive leadership with parliamentary power. This structural shift lays the groundwork for modern cabinet governance, ensuring that executive policies reflect the dominant party in the House of Commons.

The People

King William III William seeks to secure his English crown, maintain a continental coalition, and curb the expanding power of Louis XIV. He faces persistent domestic treason, parliamentary resistance, deep-seated party factionalism, and the immense financial strain of military campaigns. Through strategic compromises, the acceptance of parliamentary limits like the Triennial Act, and reliance on a unified Whig cabinet, William transforms from an isolated foreign commander into a constitutional monarch whose crown is secured by parliamentary stature and national institutions.

John Churchill, Earl of Marlborough Marlborough desires supreme military command and political influence, seeking to safeguard his career regardless of which monarch occupies the throne. Standing in his path is the inherent suspicion of William's court and the risk of exposure while maintaining secret correspondence with the exiled Jacobites. After his double-dealing is revealed by those he sought to manipulate, Marlborough suffers disgrace and imprisonment in the Tower of London, ending this phase of his career stripped of office and alienated from the royal court.

King James II James wants to regain the English throne, restore absolute royal prerogative, and advance the Catholic faith. His ambitions are thwarted by his own political miscalculations, the defeat of his forces at Aghrim and La Hogue, and his inability to understand the moral aversion triggered by his reliance on assassination plots and treasonous schemes. He remains an exiled claimant in France, increasingly dependent on French arms and isolated from the political reality of his former kingdom.

John Somers Somers aims to establish a stable constitutional system governed by the rule of law and sound judicial administration. Standing in his way are the corrupt state of the Chancery, intense partisan rivalry, and his own initial reluctance to leave the House of Commons for high executive office. Upon accepting the Great Seal as Lord Keeper, Somers rises to become a principal architect of Whig governance and a trusted judicial leader, elevating the prestige of the English legal system.

Charles Montague Montague seeks to solve the crown’s fiscal distress through innovative financial structures while advancing his standing within the Whig party. He faces bitter opposition from Tory traditionalists, envious political rivals, and goldsmiths who fear new banking institutions. Through brilliant parliamentary advocacy, Montague secures the chartering of the Bank of England and earns promotion to First Lord of the Treasury, establishing himself as the chief architect of modern English public finance.

In Its Own Voice

Reflecting on the intellectual history of religious enthusiasm and the unexpected conversion of educated men to radical sects, the text observes how the highest human intellect remains vulnerable to irrational belief systems.

"In theology the interval is small indeed between Aristotle and a child, between Archimedes and a naked savage. It is not strange, therefore, that wise men, weary of investigation, tormented by uncertainty, longing to believe something, and yet seeing objections to every thing, should submit themselves absolutely to teachers who, with firm and undoubting faith, lay claim to a supernatural commission."

Examining the unprincipled motives behind political betrayals during William's reign, the narrative unmasks the false penitence of military commanders who manipulated both sides for personal advancement.

"The truth was that, when Marlborough told the Jacobites that his sense of guilt prevented him from swallowing his food by day and taking his rest at night, he was laughing at them. The loss of half a guinea would have done more to spoil his appetite and to disturb his slumbers than all the terrors of an evil conscience."

Analyzing the financial chaos surrounding the recoinage crisis, the author illustrates basic monetary principles regarding how debased currency inevitably drives full-weight money out of domestic circulation.

"Yet any man of plain understanding might have known that, when the State treats perfect coin and light coin as of equal value, the perfect coin will not drive the light coin out of circulation, but will itself be driven out."

What It's Really About

Beneath the vivid narrative of military campaigns and court intrigues, this work presents a fundamental argument about the evolution of modern constitutional governance and civil liberty. It demonstrates how political stability in England was achieved not through autocratic efficiency, but through the painful, messy development of institutional equilibrium. The core theme centers on the transition from personal royal rule to a system where executive power must operate in harmony with parliamentary majorities and statutory laws.

The narrative reveals that real governance requires robust structural institutions rather than relying on the precarious virtue of individual leaders. Through the establishment of the Bank of England, the formalization of public credit, the reform of the coinage, and the passage of the Triennial Act, the state constructs a resilient apparatus capable of surviving treason and foreign war. Furthermore, the text examines the rise of party politics, showing how the creation of a unified Whig cabinet provided a practical mechanism to prevent perpetual paralysis between the executive and legislative branches. Ultimately, the work contends that modern liberty is protected by constitutional mechanics, judicial integrity, and financial stability—structures born out of the fierce political conflicts following the Revolution of 1688.

Why Read It Today

Readers drawn to political history, constitutional development, and the mechanics of statecraft will find this text deeply rewarding. Reading it feels like sitting beside a master historian who possesses both sweeping analytical vision and an eye for telling detail. The narrative moves seamlessly from high-stakes parliamentary debates and intricate financial calculations to the mud-soaked battlefields of Ireland and Flanders, making complex institutional shifts feel dramatic and urgent.

What stays with the reader is the work's sharp psychological insight and its unflinching examination of human motives under political strain. The author dissected the moral double-dealing of figures like Marlborough, the unyielding principles of nonjuring bishops, and the collective anxiety of a nation confronting invasion and economic chaos. The account of how ordinary citizens across England signed the Association demonstrates how deeply constitutional crises impacted everyday society beyond the halls of Whitehall.

However, prospective readers should approach the work mindful of its inherent difficulties. Its sheer length and exhaustive detail require significant stamina, as the text frequently pauses to examine parliamentary committee reports, legislative amendments, and complex diplomatic negotiations. Furthermore, the prose reflects nineteenth-century attitudes and prejudices that surface explicitly in the text—most notably in ungracious, derogatory generalizations regarding the Celtic race during the Irish campaigns and sharp dismissals of early Quaker leaders like George Fox. The author’s strong Whig sympathies also color his historical judgments, framing events through a distinct ideological lens.

Despite these period biases and dense administrative sections, the book remains an indispensable masterpiece for anyone seeking to understand how modern parliamentary democracy, public finance, and political parties were forged. It offers a masterclass in narrative history, proving that the foundation of free institutions is as dramatic and complex as any fiction.