The History of Korea (vol. 1 of 2)

In Short

Homer B. Hulbert presents a vast chronological chronicle tracing Korea’s national history from its legendary antiquity up through the brutal Japanese invasions of the late sixteenth century. Beginning with ancient tribal federations, royal dynasties, and early Chinese influence, the chronicle sweeps through the centuries to trace the rise and fall of kingdoms. As dynasty gives way to dynasty—from Sil-la and Ko-gu-ryŭ to Koryŭ and finally the Yi dynasty—the narrative documents political feuds, religious shifts between Buddhism and Confucianism, and constant threats from northern nomads. The volume culminates in the devastating Hideyoshi invasions, detailing both disastrous retreats and heroic naval defenses. It has endured as a fundamental Western text for its painstaking reliance on native Korean annals and its sympathetic, detailed record of a resilient civilization.

The Story

The narrative opens in antiquity, tracing the foundation of Cho-sŭn and the early dynasties. Following the collapse of China's Tsin dynasty, refugees stream across the border, settling along the Yalu River. Wi-man, a lieutenant fleeing China, crosses the river in disguise, receives a warm welcome from his kin, and establishes his own sway. Nearby regions develop distinct customs: Ma-han, Chin-han, and Pyön-han thrive through agriculture, silk culture, and iron trade, while observing strict social rules and vibrant musical traditions. As statecraft matures, Ko-gu-ryŭ expands its territory, successfully repelling Chinese sieges through clever trickery—such as soldiers feigning baths using glittering fish scales to convince besiegers that water supplies remain abundant. In 372 A.D., monk Sun-do introduces Buddhism alongside Chinese texts, initiating a profound transformation in Korean governance, law, and culture.

Centuries of regional rivalries ensue as kingdoms like Sil-la gain prominence. Sil-la embraces Buddhism, codifying moral laws and fostering arts like the twelve-stringed Ka-ya-geum zither. Yet geopolitical stability remains elusive. Border conflicts with Chinese forces and northern tribes rage continually. By the tenth century, Wang-gön rises to power and consolidates authority, establishing the Koryŭ dynasty. Koryŭ faces relentless pressure from surrounding empires. Internal factionalism between civil and military officials undermines central power, leaving the court vulnerable to external aggressors.

The thirteenth century brings the terrifying shadow of the Mongol Empire. Mongol forces march into the peninsula, demanding heavy tribute, hostages, and submission. Koryŭ's court retreats to the island fortress of Kang-wha, leaving the mainland exposed to widespread plundering and famine. Despite the oppressive vassalage—which includes forced demands for women, pearls, and supplies for failed Mongol expeditions against Japan—the Korean spirit persists. Corruption eventually rots the Koryŭ administration from within. Monks like the infamous Sin-don gain unbridled influence over weak kings, orchestrating purges and driving the state toward collapse.

In 1392, General Yi Cha-ch‘un's son, General Yi (King T‘ă-jo), ascends the throne, overthrowing Koryŭ and establishing a new dynasty named Cho-sūn. The new capital settles at Han-yang (Seoul). Subsequent rulers reform the administration, separate social classes by sumptuary laws, and promote scholarship. However, court factionalism continues to simmer beneath the surface.

This domestic peace shatters in the late sixteenth century. Japanese regent Hideyoshi demands passage through Korea to invade Ming China. When the Korean court steadfastly refuses to betray its sovereign alliance with China, Japanese armies land at Fusan in 1592. Equipped with firearms and battle-tested discipline, the invaders sweep north rapidly. Korean defenses collapse in panic; major cities including Seoul and P‘yūn-yang fall, forcing the king to flee toward the northern border.

Amid this catastrophe, hope emerges at sea. Admiral Yi Sun-sin engineers brilliant naval strategies, destroying the Japanese fleet and severing their supply lines. Simultaneously, Ming China sends army contingents to aid Korea. Though the boastful first Chinese reinforcements suffer a crushing ambush at P‘yŭng-yang, combined Korean and Chinese resistance gradually stalls the invasion, leaving the peninsula scarred but unconquered.

How It Unfolds

Ancient tribes settle the northern borders Refugees from torn Chinese states flee across the Yalu River, establishing early settlements alongside indigenous tribes. Wi-man usurps local power, laying the foundation for early territorial kingdoms amidst shifting tribal alliances and initial Chinese incursions.

Buddhism arrives to transform the court In 372 A.D., the monk Sun-do brings Buddhist scriptures and images to Ko-gu-ryŭ. The court eagerly adopts the faith as a state religion, prompting legal overhauls, monastery construction, and a parallel revival in Confucian scholarship.

Sil-la unifies culture and music Sil-la adopts Buddhist moral laws while cultivating traditional arts. Musician U Reuk brings the twelve-stringed Ka-ya-geum zither to the royal court, establishing popular classical songs and initiating an era of artistic expansion.

Wang-gön establishes the Koryŭ dynasty As older kingdoms fracture from corruption, Wang-gön consolidates regional authority and founds Koryŭ. He successfully navigates rivalries with northern tribes and Chinese courts, building a powerful central state.

The Mongol hordes demand vassalage Mongol armies sweep into Korea, forcing the king to retreat to Kang-wha island. Korea suffers decades of devastating raids, heavy tribute demands, and forced contributions to Mongol military campaigns.

Sin-don corrupts the royal court A treacherous monk named Sin-don gains total infatuation from the king, earning the nickname "The Tiger." He executes honorable officials, drives away royal advisors, and deepens court corruption before his eventual downfall.

General Yi founds the Cho-sŭn dynasty In 1392, General Yi takes the throne, reforming the government and renaming the realm Cho-sŭn. The nation institutes sweeping administrative, social, and literary reforms, relocating the capital to Han-yang.

Hideyoshi’s armies launch a brutal invasion Japanese forces land at Fusan, demanding passage to invade China. Meeting firm refusal, the invaders march rapidly north, capturing major strongholds and forcing the Korean court into northern flight.

Admiral Yi turns the tide at sea Admiral Yi Sun-sin achieves magnificent naval victories against the Japanese fleet, cutting off enemy supply lines. Together with Chinese allied reinforcements, Korean forces check the invasion's momentum.

The People

• Wi-man: A ambitious lieutenant from the Chinese state of Yŭn who flees eastward in disguise across the Yalu River. Welcomed by his kin, he leverages his military background to establish dominance over local populations and expand early territorial boundaries.
• Sun-do: A devout Buddhist monk who travels to Ko-gu-ryŭ in 372 A.D. bearing sacred images and texts. His arrival converts the royal court, fundamentally altering Korean law, education, and religious life.
• U Reuk: A master musician from the doomed Ka-ya state who travels to the Sil-la court carrying his twelve-string zither (Ka-ya-geum). He resists efforts by students to alter his compositions, preserving foundational Korean musical traditions.
• Wang-gön: An energetic and diplomatic leader who unites warring factions to found the Koryŭ dynasty. He earns widespread respect among northern tribes and secures recognition from Chinese emperors, establishing a centuries-long royal lineage.
• Sin-don: An unscrupulous monk who rises to absolute favor under a late Koryŭ king. Called "The Tiger" for his ruthless cruelty, he executes political rivals, alienates the queen mother, and feeds palace corruption until his eventual execution.
• King T‘ă-jo (General Yi): A seasoned military commander who ascends the throne in 1392 to clear away Koryŭ's decay. He establishes the Cho-sŭn dynasty, renames the nation, and enacts essential legal and administrative reforms.
• Admiral Yi Sun-sin: A brilliant naval commander whose tactical genius saves the nation during the 1592 Japanese invasion. Despite political jealousy from rivals, his decisive victories at sea shatter the enemy's logistical supply line.
• Genghis Khan: The formidable Mongol emperor whose expanding power forces Korean monarchs into humiliating vassalage, demanding tribute, hostages, and labor.

In Its Own Voice

"When two men met on the road it was considered good form for each to stop and insist upon the others passing first."

A look at the refined social etiquette observed among ancient peninsula inhabitants despite harsh frontier conditions.

"The scales glittered in the sun like drops of water and the enemy supposing that there must therefore be a good store of water in the city despaired of taking it by siege and so struck their tents and returned to China."

An account of a clever stratagem used by Ko-gu-ryŭ defenders to break a Chinese siege by making fish scales resemble splashing bath water.

"China is our Mother Country and we cannot so desert her as to give a road to an invading army."

A Korean official's uncompromising refusal when Japanese envoys demand a clear path to invade Ming China.

What It's Really About

Beneath its chronological recording of monarchies, battles, and court decrees, the narrative explores the endurance of a distinct national identity trapped between colossal neighboring powers. Korea repeatedly finds itself the battleground for regional dominance, situated directly between China, northern steppe nomads, and Japan. The text examines how sovereign survival relies as much on cultural unity, administrative law, and diplomatic dexterity as it does on military force.

The work also investigates the internal dynamics of governance—specifically the tension between moral leadership and systemic decay. Throughout successive dynasties, power consistently degrades when court factions, corrupt monastics, or military usurpers overshadow civic duty. Yet, despite repeated foreign devastations and domestic betrayals, the fundamental spirit of the populace repeatedly restores order, preserving a rich heritage of art, literature, and social integrity.

Why Read It Today

This volume offers a masterclass in early narrative history, presenting a foundational Western account of Korean heritage drawn directly from native Korean chronicles like the Tong-sa Kang-yo. Readers who enjoy sweeping historical narratives will appreciate its vast scope, which transforms centuries of obscure dynastic annals into an engaging, human story. Hulbert's prose carries an authentic, unvarnished clarity, eschewing exoticism in favor of genuine respect for the nation's institutional resilience.

Reading the text requires patience with its dense density. The narrative is packed with hundreds of historical figures, archaic place names, complex genealogical lines, and detailed accounts of minor border skirmishes. Readers must also navigate nineteenth-century romanization systems and dated transliterations of Asian terms. Furthermore, the sheer breadth of coverage means that major civilizational milestones often sit side-by-side with brief notes on astronomical eclipses, strange omens, or court gossip.

What remains with the reader long after finishing is an profound appreciation for Korean fortitude. The vivid depictions of clever siege tactics, the introduction of classical zither music, the tragic corruption of late medieval courts, and the heroic naval defense against Hideyoshi's armada weave together to form an unforgettable portrait of a kingdom that refused to be erased.