The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation

In Short

This collection serves as a foundational archive of early English and European exploration, documenting the mid-13th-century encounters between Western emissaries and the Mongol Empire. Through the eyes of friars like John de Plano Carpini and others, the reader gains a firsthand view of a world previously unknown to the West. The text functions as both a political report and an ethnographic study, detailing the manners, military might, and customs of the nomadic tribes. It remains a vital primary source, preserving a bridge between two vastly different worlds at the dawn of global awareness.

The Story

The narrative arc begins in the mid-13th century, a time when the West lived in the shadow of the mysterious, expansionist Mongol power. The impetus for these journeys is primarily defensive; the Papacy and various European monarchs seek to understand the nature of the "Tartars," who have already devastated regions like Hungary and Russia. The story unfolds as a series of diplomatic missions—often undertaken by friars serving as ambassadors—who travel through treacherous terrain, across frozen rivers, and through the endless grasslands of the East.

The travelers, often meagerly supplied, make their way toward the camps of the great khans. They face extreme physical hardship, including bitter cold, scarcity of food, and the constant, unnerving presence of potential execution. As they pass through the lands of the Comanians and the Kangittæ, they describe the nomadic lifestyle: the immense, portable houses mounted on heavy wagons, the reliance on mare’s milk for sustenance, and the rigorous social hierarchies dictated by the Mongol nobility.

Upon reaching the imperial courts, the ambassadors encounter a civilization that is as technologically and administratively sophisticated as it is culturally foreign. They participate in elaborate court ceremonies, where the requirement to bow before a monarch and present gifts—often consisting of precious silks, furs, or crafted items—is absolute. They witness the staggering wealth of the khans, who manage immense stores of gold, silver, and diverse livestock, and they observe the complex religious landscape, which includes Nestorians, Saracens, and practitioners of various idol-based faiths.

The accounts conclude by grounding these grand observations in the gritty reality of the return journey. The ambassadors, often left impoverished and physically shattered by their trek, must navigate the same dangers they encountered on the way out. They document their survival, the loss of companions, and the deep, abiding sense of relief in reaching home. The narrative does not offer a neat resolution of peace between East and West, but rather a chilling, detailed record of an empire that operates by its own immutable laws, leaving the reader with a profound sense of the scale and uncompromising nature of the medieval Mongol state.

How It Unfolds

The call to diplomacy Pope Innocent IV and other European leaders dispatch friars to the East to investigate reports of the "barbarous" Tartars and to advocate for the Christian faith. These men, many of whom are ill-equipped for such long-distance travel, begin their journeys with letters of introduction and meager supplies.

The traverse of the frontier The travelers move through Poland, Russia, and the lands of the Comanians, often relying on the charity of local dukes or the protection of regional leaders. They endure brutal winters, hunger, and the constant threat of attack, while documenting the geography and the devastation left by the Mongol advances.

Life among the nomads The narrative shifts to an ethnographic focus, detailing the daily existence of the Mongol tribes. The authors describe the construction of their wagon-houses, the processing of mares' milk into cosmos, and the strict, often severe, laws established by Chingis Khan.

The imperial court The friars finally arrive at the camps of the khans, where they are subjected to rigorous security checks and ceremonial protocols. They observe the immense displays of wealth, the power of the Mongol dukes, and the diversity of religious practices allowed within the empire.

The final account The reports conclude with the weary travelers’ reflections on their mission and their observations on the political structure of the Mongol Empire. They emphasize the strength of the khans and the vulnerability of those they have conquered, ultimately providing the West with a detailed, if wary, map of the East.

The People

Chingis Khan emerges as the central, mythic figure of the text—a "robust hunter" who rose from tribal warfare to unify the Mongol people. He is depicted as the architect of the empire’s laws and the progenitor of its nobility. His successors, such as Occoday and Bathy, represent the consolidation of that power; they are the figures to whom the ambassadors must beg for audience, often acting with a blend of imperial indifference and calculated hostility.

Frier John de Plano Carpini is the primary narrator and witness. He is a man of profound resolve, tasked with investigating the "state of the Tartars." His motivation is spiritual and political: he fears for the future of the Church and the safety of Europe. His struggle is defined by his physical frailty, the unreliability of his interpreters, and the constant fear of death in a land where he is a stranger. By the end of his ordeal, he is a man transformed by the severity of his experience, carrying the heavy burden of knowledge that the West is essentially at the mercy of the Khan's will.

The guides and servants who accompany the friars reflect the friction of these encounters. They are often depicted as "filthy lozels" or greedy men who take advantage of the ambassadors' poverty. They represent the barrier of communication—a frustration crystallized by the interpreter who refuses to preach or who intentionally misrepresents the friar's message to avoid trouble, leaving the ambassadors isolated in their mission.

In Its Own Voice

"And being come amongst those barbarous people, me thought (as I said before) that I was entred into a new world: for they came flocking about vs on horse back, after they had made vs a long time to awaite for them sitting in the shadow, vnder their black carts."

This reflection captures the jarring initial encounter between the friar and the nomadic society he has traveled so far to reach.

"We therefore went on towards the East, seeing nothing but heauen and earth, and sometimes the sea on our right hand, called the Sea of Tanais, and the sepulchres of the Comanians, which appeared vnto vs two leagues off, in which places they were wont to burie their kinred altogether."

This passage illustrates the vast, lonely, and ancient landscape through which the ambassadors had to pass to reach their destination.

What It's Really About

At its core, this book is an exploration of the limits of human understanding when faced with an "other" that is fundamentally different in culture, faith, and governance. It is a work about the mechanics of power—how a society built on nomadic principles and rigorous, sometimes brutal, legalism can overcome vast distances to dominate disparate populations. The underlying question is one of survival: can the West coexist with a force that views the world through a lens of total subjugation? The text argues that the Mongol Empire is not merely a collection of raiding tribes but a sophisticated, well-ordered system that requires a deep, objective understanding to navigate, however much the authors may recoil from its practices.

Why Read It Today

Readers who enjoy history that is grounded in the visceral, often messy details of human survival will find this collection compelling. It provides an unvarnished look at the medieval world, stripping away romanticized notions of exploration to show the cold, hunger, and fear that defined the experience. You will feel the weight of the travel, the disorientation of the landscape, and the genuine tension of the diplomatic encounters.

However, be prepared for challenges. The prose is densely layered with 16th-century conventions and frequent Latin, and the narrative style can be repetitive as it shifts between travelogues and administrative lists. Furthermore, the text reflects the medieval worldview; the authors harbor intense biases against the cultures they encounter, often dismissing complex religions as "idolatry" and viewing the Mongols through a lens of defensive fear. For those willing to navigate these period attitudes and the slow, deliberate pace of the writing, the reward is a rare, authentic window into a vanished era. It leaves the reader with a haunting image of the vastness of the steppe and the small, fragile human figures who dared to cross it.