The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 2: Assyria: The History, Geography, And Antiquities Of Chaldaea, Assyria, Babylon, Media, Persia, Parthia, And Sassanian or New Persian Empire

In Short

George Rawlinson’s historical and antiquarian study reconstructs the rise, character, and ultimate collapse of the ancient Assyrian Empire. Rooted in the geographic sanctuary of the upper Mesopotamian valley, the volume synthesizes early archaeological discoveries, cuneiform decipherments, and classical texts to examine every facet of Assyrian life. Rawlinson traces the territorial expansions, architectural shifts, and military tactics of successive monarchs, detailing how a culture born along the Tigris engineered massive mud-brick palaces, elaborate sieges, and complex religious rituals. The narrative follows this empire through centuries of conquest over neighboring realms like Babylonia and Elam, down to its sudden exhaustion following northern barbarian invasions and its final downfall under Saracus. It endures as a foundational landmark of Victorian Orientalism and early Assyriology.

The Story

The volume opens by establishing the physical contours of Assyria within the upper Mesopotamian valley. Bound naturally by the formidable Zagros mountains to the east and the lower alluvial plain of Babylonia to the south, Assyria expands outward over time from its core along the middle Tigris toward the Khabour and Euphrates rivers. While the wild eastern ranges gradually yield to Assyrian influence, the rugged northern barrier of Armenia remains a perpetual source of border friction and hostility.

Rawlinson transitions from geography to the mental and spiritual life of the Assyrian people. He characterizes their national temperament through a deep, prominent religious principle paired with a strong material sensuousness. Assyrian monarchs attribute every victory, hunt, and architectural enterprise to the favor of their primary deity, Asshur, and the wider pantheon. They carry religious emblems into battle, construct vast temples, and demand homage to their gods from vanquished populations. This complex spiritual framework is expressed through an intricate syllabic cuneiform script and elaborate religious iconography, most notably the winged circle enclosing a human figure.

The narrative then investigates Assyrian material culture, architecture, and technology. Rawlinson highlights how Assyrians imported mud-brick building techniques from flat Babylonia into their own stone-rich region, preferring tradition over local materials. They construct colossal, elevated palace platforms containing vast networks of narrow, thick-walled chambers roofed with flat timber and earth. The author examines their artistic endeavors, including delicate ivory carvings showing Egyptian stylistic influences, life-sized royal statues, complex copper castings, and detailed stone bas-reliefs depicting hunting expeditions and two-horse or three-horse chariots. On a practical level, their society relies on hydraulic engineering—using hand-swipes and subterranean wells with pulley systems—to irrigate crops of wheat, barley, sesame, and millet above the river lines.

The historical chronicle unfolds through successive royal dynasties, beginning with early rulers who maintain capitals at Asshur and Calah. War with Babylonia forms a constant rhythm: early monarchs like Bel-kudur-uzur fall in battle against Babylonian revolts, while successors like Nin-pala-zira and Asshur-dayan secure victories, collect spoil, and manage major temple demolitions. After a period of historical obscurity, the empire re-emerges around the tenth century B.C. Rulers such as Tiglathi-Nin and Asshur-izir-pal re-establish imperial dominance, carving monuments at distant river sources.

As the empire reaches its martial zenith, monarchs refine their military machine. Under rulers like Shalmaneser, Tiglath-Pileser, and Sennacherib, the military apparatus deploys specialized corps of heavy spearmen, slingers, mace-bearers, and archers equipped with metal helmets and iron mail. They master siege craft, employing battering rams, torches against wooden gates, and active mining beneath rampart foundations. Tiglath-Pileser marches into Syria, intervening in Judean conflicts and deporting border tribes to Upper Mesopotamia. Sennacherib builds a monumental eighty-foot-high palace at Nineveh, suppresses rebellions in Chaldaea, and installs vassal rulers in Babylon.

Under Asshur-bani-pal, Assyrian authority extends into Persarmenia and Susiana, putting down revolts and managing large-scale population transfers. Yet this territorial peak precedes a rapid, catastrophic decline. A devastating invasion by Scythian barbarians ravages the countryside, sacks major cities, and burns royal palaces. Though Asshur-bani-pal attempts to reorganize his shattered realm before his death in B.C. 626, the empire is left fatally weakened. Under his successor, Asshur-emid-ilin (Saracus), the imperial line fades into historical obscurity as the weakened state succumbs to its final collapse.

How It Unfolds

The natural boundaries Rawlinson establishes Assyria’s geography within the Mesopotamian valley, bounded by the eastern Zagros mountains and southern Babylonia. While the open eastern slopes invite expansion, the northern Armenian ranges present a jagged, snowy barrier that resists total conquest.

The spirit and script The author explores Assyrian religion and writing, highlighting a devout yet material culture centered on the god Asshur. He breaks down their cuneiform syllabarium, explaining how combinations of fundamental vowels and consonants generate dozens of distinct syllabic signs.

The architecture of habit Examining palace structures at Khorsabad and Nineveh, the narrative reveals how Assyrian builders retained Babylonian mud-brick traditions despite abundant local stone. They erect vast, elevated platforms and thick-walled halls featuring flat, earth-covered timber roofs kept firm with heavy stone rollers.

Dynastic wars and revivals The historical narrative details early conflicts with Babylonia, recording the defeat of Bel-kudur-uzur and the subsequent triumphs of Nin-pala-zira. After a silent period, later kings like Asshur-izir-pal restore imperial power and commemorate their campaigns on distant stone monuments.

The imperial engine Rawlinson analyzes Assyria’s advanced military structure, from iron-clad infantry and war chariots to sophisticated siege tactics involving tunneling and gate-burning. Kings like Tiglath-Pileser and Sennacherib expand the empire's borders, crush revolts, and relocate captive populations across Mesopotamia.

Scythian ruin and fall Following Asshur-bani-pal’s campaigns in Susiana and Armenia, a massive Scythian invasion plunders the realm and burns its royal palaces. The empire enters a swift, irreversible decline, ending quietly during the obscure reign of Saracus.

The People

• Asshur

The supreme national deity of Assyria, portrayed in art as a winged globe containing an archer. He represents the driving spiritual force of the state, in whose name kings wage campaigns, demand tribute, and erect monuments.

• Sennacherib

A formidable Assyrian monarch who reigns for twenty-four years, noted for his ambitious architectural projects and military aggression. He constructs a massive palace at Nineveh featuring sprawling corridors and elevated brick platforms, while aggressively crushing Babylonian rebellions and conducting campaigns across Syria.

• Tiglath-Pileser

An aggressive military strategist who expands Assyria's territory into Syria and the Trans-Jordanic regions. Called upon by King Ahaz of Judah, he besieges Damascus, slays its king, and forcibly relocates northern tribes into Upper Mesopotamia.

• Asshur-bani-pal

One of the last great rulers of Assyria, who projects power into Persarmenia and Elam. He subdues foreign capitals and manages imperial administrative disputes, but his reign ultimately gives way to catastrophic barbarian invasions that shatter the kingdom's foundation.

• Merodach-Baladan

A persistent Babylonian rebel who repeatedly challenges Assyrian suzerainty. He aligns with Elamite forces to seize the throne of Babylon during imperial transitions, constantly evading capture when defeated by Sennacherib's armies.

• Asshur-emid-ilin (Saracus)

The final monarch of the Assyrian empire, who inherits a realm exhausted and depopulated by northern incursions. His brief reign leaves behind few architectural remains or inscriptions, marking the shadowy conclusion of Assyrian rule.

In Its Own Voice

When describing the natural barriers that protected ancient borders, Rawlinson notes the daunting geography of the northern frontier:

"while Zagros invites the inhabitants of the Mesopotamian plain to penetrate its recesses, which are at first readily accessible, and only grow wild and savage towards the interior, the Armenian mountains repel by presenting their greatest difficulties and most barren aspect at once, seeming, with their rocky sides and snow-clad summits, to form an almost insurmountable obstacle to an invading host."

In assessing the religious motivations that drove royal conquests and daily life, he observes:

"In every way religion seems to hold a marked and prominent place in the thoughts of the people, who fight more for the honor of their gods than even of their king, and aim at extending their belief as much as their dominion."

Reflecting on the fallen monuments and forgotten names of earlier Assyrian rulers, he writes:

"They stand up before us the mere 'shadows of mighty names'--proofs of the, uncertainty of posthumous fame, which is almost as often the award of chance as the deserved recompense of superior merit."

What It's Really About

Beneath its exhaustive cataloging of geographical boundaries, cuneiform tables, and royal lineages, this volume is an inquiry into the mechanics of imperial rise and collapse. Rawlinson investigates how cultural inertia and religious fanaticism shape the trajectory of a civilization. A central thesis emerges regarding architectural and cultural conservatism: the Assyrians stubbornly maintained Babylonian clay-brick methods even when settling in a stony region, demonstrating how ancestral habits dictate material culture long after migration.

The text also examines the relationship between military expansion and systemic vulnerability. Rawlinson demonstrates that an empire built on perpetual conquest, heavy taxation, and forced deportations creates an overextended state. When an unforeseen external shock arrives—in this case, the Scythian invasion—the central authority cannot recover. The book ultimately presents a meditation on the fragility of ancient power, showing how even the most militarized empire can quickly dissolve into "shadows of mighty names" when its structural core is undermined.

Why Read It Today

This volume offers a fascinating window into nineteenth-century scholarship at the exact moment when early archaeology and cuneiform decipherment were reshaping our understanding of the ancient Near East. Readers who enjoy dense, methodical historiography will appreciate Rawlinson’s clear, deliberate prose and his meticulous synthesis of classical Greek texts, Biblical accounts, and raw archaeological finds. It captures the thrill of early Victorian discovery, where every excavated stone roller or ivory panel provided a fresh piece of a forgotten world.

However, modern readers must navigate the typical difficulties of a Victorian academic text. The prose moves at a unhurried pace, laden with extensive comparative lists of geographic ranges, classical citations, and architectural measurements. Rawlinson occasionally applies nineteenth-century racial and religious generalizations to ancient peoples, comparing Semitic groups through a distinctly Victorian lens. His narrative assumes a reader comfortable with classical references to Herodotus, Strabo, and Pliny.

Despite these period traits, the book retains a quiet, authoritative charm. It succeeds in converting mute artifacts—mutilated statues, broken bricks, and carved chariot wheels—into a coherent narrative of human ambition and imperial decay. What stays with the reader is the vivid picture of a culture that built sprawling cities along the Tigris, dominated its neighbors through siege engines and archers, and yet left behind ruins that lay buried for millennia.