The Treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the North-West Territories: Including the Negotiations on Which They Were Based, and Other Information Relating Thereto

In Short

This book serves as a primary source compilation regarding the mid-19th-century Canadian "Numbered Treaties." It collects official dispatches, transcripts of negotiations, and the final texts of agreements made between the Crown and various Indigenous tribes across the plains and forests of Western Canada. By documenting the specific language used during these councils—including the promises of reserves, annual payments, and assistance—the text provides a window into the colonial administration’s attempt to secure land for expansion while managing the displacement of Indigenous populations. The book has endured as an essential reference for understanding the legal and social framework that continues to define the relationship between the Canadian state and First Nations today.

The Story

The narrative arc of the book follows the expansion of the Canadian Dominion as it pushes westward from the Lake of the Woods toward the Rocky Mountains. The primary objective is the "relinquishment of the natural title" of the Indigenous peoples to the "Fertile Belt," a region essential for the Crown's ambitions of settlement and railway development. The story begins in the early 1870s with the government's realization that the Dawson route—a passage for emigrants—must be secured through formal agreement with the Ojibway people.

As the government moves to formalize its authority, the text details a recurring cycle of diplomatic engagement: the assembly of government commissioners, the arrival of tribal chiefs, and the difficult, often protracted negotiations over the terms of surrender. The government side, led by the Lieutenant-Governor, repeatedly emphasizes the "Great Mother" (Queen Victoria) as a benevolent figure, offering agricultural support and protection in exchange for land. They argue that as the buffalo population declines, the tribes must transition to farming or face starvation. Throughout these meetings, the Indigenous leaders express skepticism and deep concern, often pointing out that they are being asked to give up their ancestral way of life for a future they do not control. The chiefs negotiate for the rights of their children and grandchildren, seeking to ensure that their people will have a place to live and that the promises made by the Crown will be honored in perpetuity.

The negotiations frequently hit impasses. Some chiefs resist the pressure to settle, while others argue that the government’s offers are insufficient or that the Crown does not understand the depth of the sacrifice being asked. The transcripts reveal these moments of friction, where the government officials insist that their power is limited and that they cannot provide more than what has been granted to tribes in the East. Eventually, through a mix of persuasion, the promise of annual payments, and the growing reality of food shortages, the chiefs agree to sign the treaties. The narrative concludes with the extension of these agreements to the Blackfeet and other tribes at the foot of the Rockies, and a final, sober assessment of the challenges of administering these treaties in a changing landscape where the buffalo have vanished and the influence of the Hudson’s Bay Company has receded. The book leaves the reader with the image of a vast, shifting territory being reshaped by bureaucracy, law, and the encroaching presence of settlers.

How It Unfolds

The initial mandate The government identifies a need to secure the "Fertile Belt" to allow for safe emigration and the development of the Dawson route. Commissioners are dispatched to meet with the Ojibway, armed with instructions to seek a surrender of territorial rights in exchange for reserves and annuities.

The process of negotiation Conferences are held at sites like the North-West Angle and Qu’Appelle, where government representatives and tribal leaders engage in formal dialogue. The government presents the Queen’s terms as final and uniform, while the chiefs demand security for their people’s future and clarification on the limits of white expansion.

The transition to agriculture The government frames the treaties as a charitable necessity, insisting that the Indians must abandon the hunt to survive. This shift is presented as a voluntary choice, though the text makes clear that the disappearance of the buffalo makes the transition to farming a matter of survival.

The inclusion of the Blackfeet The treaty process reaches the plains, where the Blackfeet, Blood, and Piegan tribes are brought into the legal framework. The government relies on the influence of missionaries and the presence of the North-West Mounted Police to assure the tribes of their protection against whiskey traders and future conflicts.

The administration of the agreements The book concludes by detailing the practical realities of managing the reserves and payments. It acknowledges the persistent struggles of the tribes and the government's ongoing burden of providing support in the face of famine and administrative complexity.

The People

Alexander Morris, as the author and lead negotiator, serves as the voice of the Canadian government. He is a man of precise legalistic temperament who views the treaties as a "work of alliance" intended to bring the Indigenous population under the order of the Crown. He is constantly managing the tension between his desire to show the Queen’s "charitableness" and his rigid insistence that he cannot exceed the financial powers granted by his superiors.

The Indigenous leaders, referred to by names like "The Gambler" and "Way-wa-se-ca-pow," emerge as astute and weary interlocutors. They are not passive recipients of government policy; they are the primary architects of the demands that shape the final texts. They view the government with caution, well aware that they are trading ancestral freedom for the protection of a distant monarch. Their goal is the preservation of their people and the securing of a home for future generations, even as they realize that the traditional life of the plains is under threat.

The missionaries, such as the Reverend George McDougall, act as vital intermediaries. They are the ones who travel into the "lonely wilds" to prepare the tribes for the arrival of the government officials. Their involvement is essential to the "tranquilizing" of the region, as they bridge the gap between two very different cultures. Their presence highlights the moral and spiritual framing of the expansion. Finally, the officers of the North-West Mounted Police, such as Colonel McLeod, are present as the physical manifestation of the Crown’s authority. Their role is to provide the "protection" that the government promises, acting as a buffer between the incoming settlers and the Indigenous communities, a presence that the chiefs often view with a mixture of relief and inherent suspicion.

In Its Own Voice

"Your Great Mother wishes the good of all races under her sway. She wishes her red children to be happy and contented."

This is how the Lieutenant-Governor explains the Queen's intent during a council, using the paternalistic language common to the negotiations.

"The white man has robbed us of our riches, and we don't wish to give them up again without getting something in their place."

A chief voices this pointed challenge to the commissioners during a negotiation, highlighting the power imbalance at the heart of the treaty process.

"I have always been much pleased when Indians came to me and showed me medals given to their grandfathers and transmitted to them; now we have with us silver medals that no Chief need be ashamed to wear."

The Governor uses these symbols of colonial authority to define the new relationship between the Crown and the Indigenous leadership.

What It's Really About

The central theme is the legal and moral justification of land transfer. The book asks how a state can reconcile the rapid colonization of a territory with the rights of its original inhabitants. It operates on the argument that by establishing a formal, codified system of treaties, the government is fulfilling a "national obligation" to prevent the "hard fate" of extinction. Yet, the text raises deeper questions about the nature of sovereignty and the disparity between the promises made in council and the reality of the government's limited agency. It is an exploration of how power is negotiated through language—how "fairness and justice" are defined by the victors and how those definitions serve to normalize the displacement of thousands of people in the name of progress, agriculture, and order.

Why Read It Today

This book is not a casual read; it is a dense, rigorous collection of historical documents that demands patience. The reader will encounter the formal, often stilted language of 19th-century colonial administration, alongside the translated, sometimes fragmented voices of the Indigenous leaders. The period attitudes are starkly apparent; the text is written from the perspective of an official who views the expansion of the Dominion as an unquestionable, noble necessity.

However, the book remains incredibly valuable for anyone interested in the foundational history of Canada. It allows the reader to bypass modern interpretation and engage directly with the transcripts of the councils. There is a profound, haunting quality to reading the exact words of the chiefs as they grapple with the end of their era—witnessing their attempts to hold onto their heritage while standing before a government that has already decided their future. It is a sobering experience to see the bureaucratic machinery of the state grind into motion, promising "reserves" and "medicine chests" while simultaneously setting the stage for the systematic dismantling of a traditional way of life. For the reader who wants to understand the origins of the land title issues that still shape the North American landscape today, this record is essential. It does not provide easy answers, but it offers a chilling, precise look at the mechanisms of power as they were applied on the frontier.