The Works of Aphra Behn, Volume I

In Short

This collection gathers four dramatic works from late seventeenth-century England, presenting a turbulent landscape of intrigue, romantic deception, and political satire. Set across sprawling European cities and chaotic revolutionary London, the plays follow exiled Cavaliers, cunning courtesans, rebellious sisters, and hypocritical Puritan rulers. Characters navigate masked carnivals, perilous sword duels, secret garden trysts, and backroom political conspiracies while striving for personal liberty, financial security, and authentic passion. Through witty dialogue, complex romantic entanglements, and sharp institutional critique, the volume demonstrates how personal desire repeatedly clashes with rigid social expectations and state power. Its enduring vitality rests on its fierce humor, theatrical momentum, and unsparing examination of mercenary relationships, gender dynamics, and ideological hypocrisy.

The Story

The volume opens in Naples during carnival season, where exiled English Cavaliers struggle with poverty and romantic ambition. Florinda seeks to escape an arranged marriage with the Viceroy's son, Don Antonio, desiring instead the noble Colonel Belvile, while her spirited sister Hellena rebels against her family's plan to send her to a convent. Accompanied by their reluctant duenna Callis, the sisters assume elaborate carnival disguises to venture into the streets. Meanwhile, the wild rake Captain Willmore pursues pleasure indiscriminately, drawn to the famous courtesan Angellica Bianca. Angellica falls deeply in love with Willmore, waiving her immense fee, only to be cast aside when his roving eye wanders. Misunderstandings, mistaken identities, and sword duels erupt throughout the city. The foolish English squire Ned Blunt is duped and stripped of his possessions by a cunning prostitute, driving him into a furious revenge that nearly brutalizes Florinda before her rescue. Belvile fights duels under borrowed garments to protect his honor, eventually winning Florinda, while Hellena matches Willmore’s wild nature with her own sharp wit to secure a marriage built on mutual freedom.

The theatrical journey continues as Willmore moves on to Madrid, pursuing another high-priced courtesan, La Nuche. La Nuche strives to safeguard her financial independence against her swelling passion for the penniless English captain, observing the grim warning of her aging pimp Petronella. Concurrently, the gentleman Beaumond attempts to evade an unwanted match with his cousin Ariadne, who similarly detests the dull formality of forced matrimony and disguises herself in male attire to seek adventure. After a series of midnight assignations, disguised encounters, and bitter arguments over virtue and sexual commerce, La Nuche surrenders her mercenary pride to accept Willmore on terms of mutual affection rather than money, while Ariadne and Beaumond dismantle their arranged union to pursue genuine personal choices.

Shifting to Madrid in The Dutch Lover, the drama delves deeper into romantic complications, honor codes, and mistaken identities. The adventurous visitor Alonzo and his friend Lovis seek gallantry, drawn into mysterious meetings following church services by the veiled guide Olinda. Amidst these romantic pursuits, dark family secrets surface: Silvio harbors a tormenting passion for Cleonte, whom he believes to be his own sister. Surrounded by pastoral performances and tender music arranged by the manipulative servant Francisca, Silvio struggles against his unlawful desire. Outside, sword duels erupt between rival suitors Alonzo, Marcel, and Antonio over the wronged Hippolyta, who disguises herself as a male fighter to avenge her lost honor. Bloodshed and confusion reach a fever pitch before true lineages are revealed, dissolving the threat of incest and resolving the perilous conflicts into lawful marriages.

Finally, the narrative turns to revolutionary London during the twilight of the Commonwealth in The Round-Heads. Puritan leaders including Lambert, Fleetwood, and Wariston quarrel among themselves for supreme authority while soldiers openly mock their incompetence and religious posturing. Royalist gentlemen Loveless and Freeman cleverly exploit this prevailing hypocrisy. Freeman conducts an affair with Lady Desbro, funding his lifestyle with money provided by her corrupt Puritan husband under the cover of mock-religious prayers. Loveless infiltrates the inner sanctum of the Puritan elite by disguising himself, gaining entry to Lady Lambert's chamber and the exclusive Council of Ladies. As political factions crumble and general Monk’s army enters the city, the hypocritical rulers panic, hiding in garrets while the London public rises in celebration. The plays end with the downfall of the Rump Parliament, as joy fill the streets with bonfires and shouts for the returning King, uniting romantic fulfillment with political restoration.

How It Unfolds

• Escaping the cloister

In carnival Naples, Florinda and her spirited sister Hellena scheme to escape forced marriage and convent confinement by putting on fantastical masquerade dresses. They venture out into the bustling streets alongside impoverished, exiled English Cavaliers who are searching for romantic conquests and financial salvation.

• The price of passion

The renowned courtesan Angellica Bianca abandons her mercenary commercial terms after falling genuinely in love with Captain Willmore, only to suffer deeply when his erratic desires wander elsewhere. Simultaneously, the naive country squire Ned Blunt gets robbed and humiliated by a deceitful woman, sparking an indiscriminate rage against all women.

• Challenging forced matches

In Madrid, the proud courtesan La Nuche fights to maintain her financial autonomy, resisting her strong desire for the penniless Willmore while heeding her old pimp's grim warnings about poverty. Nearby, Beaumond and Ariadne actively undermine their family-arranged betrothal, choosing nighttime escapades and self-determined romance instead.

• Mistaken identities and church trysts

The Spanish traveler Alonzo and his companion Lovis follow a veiled guide named Olinda straight from a church service into a dizzying maze of romantic intrigue. They rely on chance and cross-or-pile coin tosses to decide who gets to answer the mysterious summons of a wealthy lady.

• Dark secrets and garden shades

Silvio suffers deeply over his unlawful passion for Cleonte, believing her to be his sister while tending to his severe wounds. A elaborate pastoral dance of nymphs and shepherds arranged in the garden fails to ease his internal torment, while scheming servants watch his agonizing struggle.

• Honor restored by the sword

Hippolyta dons male armor and assumes a false name to confront the unfaithful Antonio, who previously abandoned her despite solemn promises of marriage. Alonzo and Marcel jump into the chaotic dueling, ultimately untangling false accusations and restoring family honor through proper marriages.

• Infiltrating the saintly council

In Commonwealth London, the Royalist gentleman Freeman pockets gold from a corrupt Puritan leader named Desbro while conducting a secret affair with his wife Maria under the guise of mock-religious prayers. Meanwhile, his companion Loveless disguises himself in female attire to gain entry into Lady Lambert's private quarters and spy on the Council of Ladies.

• The fall of the Rump

When General Monk's armies march into London, the hypocritical Puritan ruling council collapses in utter panic, forcing leaders like Fleetwood to hide in garrets. The joyful London citizenry fills the streets, roasting the Rump Parliament in effigy and celebrating the return of the monarchy.

The People

Willmore wants constant pleasure, romance, and freedom without financial or marital bonds. His own poverty and wild, erratic temperament continuously sabotage his prospects, but his magnetic charm allows him to win over both the free-spirited Hellena and the proud courtesan La Nuche, eventually accepting commitment on terms of mutual equality.

Angellica Bianca wants genuine affection rather than commercial exchange. Her high professional status and pride initially shield her, but when she surrenders her heart to Willmore without guarantees, his betrayal leaves her heartbroken, transforming her from an untouchable icon into a vengeful, disillusioned woman.

Hellena seeks adventure and emotional freedom rather than the dull, forced life of a convent. Her family’s strict religious authority stands in her path, yet by deploying sharp wit, playful disguises, and quick intellect, she successfully tames Willmore and secures a marriage grounded in shared independence.

Belvile desires an honorable marriage with Florinda, but his poverty, exiled status, and her family's insistence on a wealthy Spanish nobleman thwart him. Through persistent courage, gallantry in duels, and unwavering loyalty during carnival chaos, he survives false accusations and wins Florinda's hand.

La Nuche seeks financial security and autonomy, terrified of ending up destitute like her elderly handler Petronella. Her growing love for the penniless Willmore threatens her livelihood, but she ultimately sheds her mercenary pride to embrace love over wealth.

Silvio longs to resolve his agonizing passion for Cleonte, whom he mistakenly believes to be his sister. His overwhelming guilt and societal taboos torment him continuously until the revelation of his true lineage frees him to pursue her openly and lawfully.

Freeman wants to restore his personal fortune and undermine the Puritan regime. The political power and hypocrisy of Puritan leaders stand in his way, but through cunning romance with Lady Desbro and clever manipulation, he secures wealth and celebrates the monarchy's return.

In Its Own Voice

Preparing to slip out into the lively Naples carnival, Hellena forcefully encourages her hesitating sister Florinda to cast away her melancholy and join her in taking complete advantage of the city's temporary masked freedoms.

"Come put off this dull Humour with your Clothes, and assume one as gay, and as fantastick as the Dress my Cousin Valeria and I have provided, and let’s ramble."

Challenging the famous courtesan Angellica Bianca on her steep commercial rates, Captain Willmore passionately attacks the pervasive society habit of trading genuine human love for gold in both marriage and courtship.

"It is a barbarous Custom, which I will scorn to defend in our Sex, and do despise in yours."

Lady Desbro mockingly imitates her husband's tedious three-hour extemporaneous Puritan prayers, revealing to her Royalist lover Freeman how pious religious rhetoric gets weaponized to ruin political opponents.

"Press ’em, good Lard, even as the Vintager doth the Grape in the Wine-Press, till the Waters and gliding Channels are made red with the Blood of the Wicked."

What It's Really About

Beneath their rapid theatrical pacing and comic intrigue, these plays present a incisive critique of the commercialization of human intimacy. The narrative constantly exposes how forced marriage and prostitution function as twin facets of the same economic system, where individuals—particularly women—are bought, sold, or bartered for status and financial security. The text interrogates whether genuine love and personal agency can survive within a society that treats marriage as a property transaction and passion as a commodity. Simultaneously, the plays probe the thin line between ideological virtue and blatant hypocrisy. By contrasting the wild, uninhibited loyalty of exiled Cavaliers with the corrupt, self-serving piety of Puritan leaders, the drama questions the legitimacy of state and religious authority. Ultimately, the work asks whether individual liberty, authentic desire, and personal honor can be maintained when political structures collapse and societal rules become instruments of coercion and greed.

Why Read It Today

Readers drawn to Restoration theater, political satire, sharp gender commentary, and fast-paced comedy will find this volume deeply rewarding. Reading these plays feels like stepping directly onto a crowded, chaotic seventeenth-century stage filled with rapid dialogue, dramatic reversals, masked encounters, and fierce wit. What stays with you long after reading is the astonishingly modern tone regarding sexual politics, economic autonomy, and female self-determination. The women across these plays do not merely accept their social destinies; they actively plot, duel, argue, and trick their way toward personal freedom, exposing the transactional nature of their world.

However, modern readers must navigate notable period difficulties. The seventeenth-century dramatic conventions rely heavily on complex stage directions, sudden disguises, and intricate double plots that demand close attention and patient reading. Furthermore, the volume reflects period attitudes that can feel jarring to modern sensibilities, including casual violence, cynical treatment of sexual harassment, and overt royalist political bias against Puritans. The texts also feature archaic vocabulary, regional dialects, and mock-pious jargon, alongside extensive historical editorial commentary regarding seventeenth-century actors, legal warrants, and tavern brawls. Yet for those willing to engage with these historical layers, the volume offers an uncommonly bold, energetic, and transparent view into the social, sexual, and political anxieties of Restoration England.