Two old faiths

In Short

This volume combines two historical and comparative essays examining the development, doctrines, and civilizational effects of Hinduism and Islam. J. Murray Mitchell traces the Hindu tradition from its early Vedic hymnology and philosophical Upanishads through the rise of caste, Puranic mythology, and modern reform movements like the Brahmo Somaj. Sir William Muir analyzes the rapid early expansion of Islam under Mohammed and the caliphs, contrasting its early military drive with its subsequent social and political stagnation. Together, they evaluate both systems against Christian theology, arguing that both lack the moral dynamic required to elevate human society long-term.

The Story

The text begins with J. Murray Mitchell’s examination of the Hindu religious tradition, starting with its earliest textual layer in the Vedas. Mitchell describes the simple, nature-based polytheism of the early Aryans, who exalted personified forces such as Agni, the god of fire, and Soma, the personified intoxicating juice of a mountain plant. He notes the loftiness of Varuna, the encompasser of heaven, before detailing how Vedic worship gradually grew into an elaborate system of barter and complex ritualism led by a rising priestly class. From this ritualistic foundation, Indian thought expanded into speculative philosophy. Mitchell surveys the concepts of the Upanishads, particularly the doctrine of Atman or Self, where the absolute being is understood as the "one without a second" and the material world is reduced to illusion (maya). He highlights the Bhagavad Gita as an eclectic synthesis designed to harmonize these competing philosophical schools.

Mitchell then charts the historical reconstruction that produced modern Hinduism. Following a long conflict with Buddhism, Hinduism adapted by elevating personal, accessible deities through the Puranas. The triad (Trimurtti) of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva came to the fore, with Vishnu's incarnations (Avataras)—most notably Rama and Krishna—offering the populace near, sympathetic figures. Yet this era also established the rigid, divisive institution of caste, highly elaborate image-worship rituals, and restrictive social conditions for women. Mitchell contrasts these developments with Christianity, arguing that Hinduism lacks a supreme moral ideal. Turning to modern developments, he details the rise of the Brahmo Somaj under Keshub Chunder Sen, noting how Sen attempted to blend Eastern and Western ideas into a "New Dispensation" that adopted ritual innovations like the Flag Ceremony and declarations of the "motherhood of God."

The second half of the book, authored by Sir William Muir, shifts to the rise and decline of Islam. Muir outlines Mohammed’s early career in Mecca as a peaceful preacher of tolerance, contrasting it sharply with his turn to military conquest after the flight to Medina in A.D. 622. In Medina, Mohammed organized armed campaigns against neighboring Jewish tribes and Arabian caravans, culminating in the submission of the entire Arabian peninsula to his authority. Muir attributes Islam's astonishingly rapid initial expansion to this combination of martial zeal, spiritual promises of martyrdom, and the immediate material fruits of conquest—vast plunder, fertile lands, and captives.

Muir then investigates why Islam's geographic expansion eventually halted and why its societies experienced civilizational stagnation. He argues that once the Arabian tribes ceased to operate as a standing crusading force, the initial momentum dissipated. Furthermore, Muir contends that Islam carries structural liabilities that prevent enduring human progress: the legal perpetuation of slavery, the practice of polygamy, servile concubinage, and the severe humiliation imposed on non-Muslims through the Code of Omar. Comparing these institutions to Christian precepts, Muir concludes that Islam lacks the capacity for organic moral growth, remaining a rigid human creation bounded by its seventh-century origin.

How It Unfolds

The Vedic dawn The authors open with the oldest hymns of the Aryans, describing a nature-worship centered on Agni, the intoxicating plant-god Soma, and the moral grandeur of Varuna. Worship is personal, domestic, and free of physical idols, operating largely as a reciprocal exchange of praises for temporal blessings.

Philosophical speculation and ritual expansion As priests compose the prose Brahmanas, ritualism becomes increasingly complex and symbolic. Thinkers turn inward through the Upanishads, formulating the doctrine of Atman and asserting that the finite world is a mere illusion played by the absolute "one without a second."

Puranic reconstruction and caste To counter the ethical appeal of Buddhism, Brahmanism reorganizes around popular deities through the Puranas. The Trimurtti emerges alongside the ten "descents" or Avataras of Vishnu, while social structures harden into the pervasive, dividing influence of the caste system.

Modern reform and syncretism Examining 19th-century developments, the narrative focuses on Keshub Chunder Sen's Brahmo Somaj and its "New Dispensation." Sen introduces eclectic rituals, proclaims the "motherhood of God," and adopts adapted sacraments, creating a controversial blend of Hindu and Christian elements.

The sword of Medina Transitioning to Islam, the text traces Mohammed's shift from a preacher of tolerance in Mecca to a militant sovereign in Medina. He subdues local Jewish tribes, launches raids, and uses armed force to unify Arabia under the banner of Islam before his death.

Conquest and its fruits Under the early caliphs, Arabian armies sweep into Chaldea and Persia, driven by a combination of religious merit and immense material rewards. Victors capture millions in treasure and secure fertile lands, establishing a vast tributary empire over conquered populations.

The causes of stagnation The narrative concludes by analyzing Islam's long-term decline and stationary boundaries. The authors attribute this depression to social institutions codified in the Koran—specifically slavery, polygamy, female seclusion, and the enforced degradation of subject religions under the Code of Omar.

The People

• Agni, Soma, and Varuna: The principal divinities of the early Vedic pantheon. Agni represents fire, Soma is the personified, intoxicating milk-plant juice worshiped as a creator, and Varuna is the sublime encompasser of heaven who numbers the winkings of men's eyes and upholds cosmic order.
• Vishnu and Krishna: Vishnu is the preserving deity of the Hindu triad whose "descents" (Avataras) restore order. Krishna, his most celebrated incarnation, becomes the primary object of devotion for millions, though the authors criticize his mythological attributes as lacking moral elevation.
• Keshub Chunder Sen: The prominent leader of the 19th-century Brahmo Somaj movement in Bengal. Driven to reform traditional religion, he attempts to harmonize world faiths into the "New Dispensation," introducing novel symbols like the lighted pile of wood and claiming divine proclamations from God as Mother.
• Mohammed: The founder of Islam, who transforms from an persecuted preacher teaching non-constraint in Mecca into a powerful kingly prophet in Medina. Desiring total religious submission, he leads armed forces, exiles or exterminates opposing tribes, and establishes a militant faith through conquest.
• Omar: The early Caliph whose military policies launch Arab armies into Persia and Syria. He establishes the rewards for warriors fighting "in the ways of the Lord" and codifies discriminatory social laws (the Code of Omar) that subject non-Moslem tributaries to perpetual humiliation.

In Its Own Voice

"The winkings of men's eyes are numbered by him. He upholds order, both physical and moral, throughout the universe."

The authors highlight the rare sublimity of the Vedic hymns when describing Varuna, the ancient deity of the all-encompassing heavens.

"The bull roars; he has four horns, three feet, two heads, seven hands, and is bound by a three-fold cord; he is the mighty, resplendent being, and pervades mortal men."

This passage is cited from the traditional Hindu ritual texts as an example of symbolic ritualism run wild during penance recitations.

"Verily, every footstep in the ways of the Lord is equal in merit to manifold good works, and wipeth away a multitude of sins."

Caliph Abu Bekr quotes these words while marching alongside the Syrian army, illustrating the intense spiritual incentives attached to early Islamic military campaigns.

What It's Really About

At its core, Two Old Faiths is an investigation into the relationship between religious doctrines and human progress. The authors ask whether non-Christian religious systems possess the internal resources necessary to morally transform individuals and sustain a dynamic, humane civilization. In Hinduism, they find an oscillation between abstract pantheistic idealism (Atman) and degraded popular idolatry, both of which lack a supreme, flawless moral model for devotees to imitate. In Islam, they identify an unyielding historical codification that fused spiritual devotion with political coercion, slavery, and domestic subjugation. The underlying argument is that while both faiths contain historic grandeur and occasional insights, neither can adapt to foster true human freedom, moral purity, or continuous social advancement without abandoning their founding principles.

Why Read It Today

Two Old Faiths will interest historians of religion, scholars of 19th-century missionary thought, and readers curious about Victorian theological perspectives. Reading it offers an intimate look at how 19th-century Western scholars categorized Asian religions, balancing genuine linguistic erudition with an unwavering conviction in Christian superiority.

The prose is precise, formal, and structured with clear thematic arguments, making complex philosophical and historical shifts accessible. However, readers must navigate clear period attitudes. The authors write from an explicit evangelical Christian standpoint, evaluating other faiths through a comparative lens that frequently labels non-Christian rites as "degraded" or "fanatical." Furthermore, the text reflects Victorian assumptions regarding social progress, domestic life, and imperial order. What remains with the reader is a detailed historical snapshot: a meticulously organized account of Vedic philosophy, Puranic evolution, Brahmo Somaj reform, and early Islamic expansion, preserved exactly as understood by leading British orientalist scholars at the end of the 19th century.