Ukraine under the Soviets

In Short

Clarence Augustus Manning’s historical account charts Ukraine’s tumultuous journey from the 1917 revolution through the establishment of Soviet rule, the fleeting hopes of Ukrainization, and the catastrophic man-made famines and political purges of the 1930s. It details how initial attempts at national self-determination and cultural revival were systematically dismantled by Moscow’s centralizing authority. The book has lasted as a sobering primary-source chronicle of resistance, ideological betrayal, and the harsh realities of totalitarian state-building in Eastern Europe during the turbulent twentieth century.

The Story

Following the 1917 downfall of the tsarist regime, the Russian Empire disintegrates as subject peoples demand independent states. In Ukraine, the Central Rada assumes responsibility, but tensions quickly mount with the Provisional Government and Lenin’s Bolsheviks in Petrograd. Although Lenin initially champions self-determination to encourage separation, his policies reveal a cynical hypocrisy designed to subjugate non-Russian regions under Moscow’s strict party discipline. Multiple communist factions—including the Borotbisty and Ukapisty—attempt to carve out an independent path for Ukrainian culture and communism, only to be systematically dissolved or absorbed into the Russian Communist Party branch.

With the introduction of the New Economic Policy, economic life revives. Ukrainian peasants lease land, establish village aid cooperatives like Selo-Pomich, and build agricultural banks, fostering a brief period of relative prosperity. Concurrently, scholars and educators pursue extensive cultural revival, organizing archaeological societies, debating linguistic purism versus European innovations, and standardizing Ukrainian orthography at the 1927 Kharkiv conference. Figures like M. Skrypnyk champion a national communism that views Soviet assistance as a brotherly alliance rather than foreign occupation.

This fragile renaissance collapses as Stalin consolidates absolute power and institutes the First Five Year Plan. Local commissariats are reduced to mere subsidiaries of Moscow, and forced collectivization targets the fiercely independent Ukrainian peasantry. The tragic climax unfolds in the early 1930s with a devastating, man-made famine. Millions starve while officials conceal deaths under false medical codes like "BBO," and authorities systematically loot churches, arrest intellectuals, and alter dictionaries to enforce russification. The cultural purges merge into the broader Yezhovshchina of the late thirties, wiping out old Bolshevik leaders, military marshals, and independent thinkers alike.

The outbreak of World War II brings further devastation. Following the Nazi-Soviet pact, western Ukraine is annexed, only to suffer brutal German occupation under Erich Koch after the rapid collapse of Soviet defenses and the surrender of hundreds of thousands of Red Army soldiers. Amidst the chaos, the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church tries to survive but faces relentless pressure. As the war draws to a close, the Soviets retake the territory, evacuating remaining machinery and intellectuals while destroying what they cannot move. The narrative concludes in the post-war era, where Soviet cultural policy settles into an unyielding, reactionary imitation of historical Russian imperialism, cementing total central control over Ukrainian spiritual and intellectual life.

How It Unfolds

The disintegration of the imperial order Following the 1917 revolution, the Russian Empire fractures rapidly as subject populations demand self-determination and independent statehood. Western democracies fail to understand these complex movements, initially misinterpreting them as German machinations rather than recognizing them as genuine democratic procedures arising from the sudden disappearance of the tsars and the Romanov dynasty.

The illusion of political autonomy Lenin encourages Ukrainian separation during the summer of 1917, but quickly exposes his policy's profound cynicism after seizing power in Petrograd. The Central Rada attempts to establish distinct administrative controls, though local communist factions like the Borotbisty and Ukapisty remain entirely subservient to Moscow's central party discipline and absolute authority.

The agricultural and cultural renaissance During the New Economic Policy, peasants successfully organize village aid cooperatives, agricultural machine rentals, and independent banks to restore rural prosperity and livestock holdings. Simultaneously, scholars flourish through archaeological expeditions, massive dictionary projects, and the 1927 Kharkiv orthography conference, fostering a rich, independent, and standardized national culture.

The rise of state terror and mass famine Stalin abolishes local independence with the First Five Year Plan and enforces brutal collectivization on the reluctant Ukrainian peasantry. The early 1930s bring a catastrophic man-made famine where millions perish of starvation, while officials systematically falsify death records under codes like "BBO," loot ancient churches, and dismantle linguistic standards to enforce russification.

The wartime devastation and post-war subjugation World War II unleashes rapid military collapses, massive red army surrenders, and a ruthless German occupation under fanatical official Erich Koch. Upon returning, the Soviet regime executes widespread deportations of intellectuals and imposes an unyielding cultural policy that mirrors historical Russian imperialism, completely eradicating all remaining independent Ukrainian institutions and spiritual life.

The People

Lenin wants to maintain absolute control over non-Russian territories while appearing to champion self-determination. Standing in his way are independent Ukrainian communists and the Central Rada. He ends up outmaneuvering his opponents by subordinating all regional parties directly to Moscow.

M. Skrypnyk wants an independent Soviet Ukraine that develops as a brotherly equal to Russia with its own seat in the Comintern. Standing in his way is the rigid central discipline of the All-Union Communist Party and Stalin’s consolidation of power. He ends up trapped by his own communist loyalty, ultimately dying before facing full disgrace.

Olexander Shumsky wants to foster Ukrainian culture and political independence within a communist framework. Standing in his way are hardline party officials like Kaganovich who accuse him of breaking discipline. He ends up removed from power, sent to a concentration camp near the Finnish border, and shot during an alleged escape attempt.

Mykola Khvylovy wants a flourishing, European-oriented Ukrainian literature free from narrow artistic regimentation. Standing in his way are strict party literary associations like RAPP and growing political pressure. He ends up silenced and broken by persistent state interference against his novels.

Erich Koch wants to ruthlessly exploit and crush Ukrainian national aspirations under a brutal Nazi occupation. Standing in his way is the resilient local population. He ends up earning the universally detested title of the butcher of Ukraine through his fanatical terror.

In Its Own Voice

Describing the deceptive nature of early Soviet policy regarding national separation, the author notes the immediate betrayal of democratic principles:

He and his friends had hardly come into power, when he showed at once the cynicism and hypocrisy of his entire policy.

Detailing the horrific human cost of the man-made famine in the early 1930s, the text exposes how medical professionals were silenced:

Physicians were forbidden to enter “hunger” in the records of illness and death.

Reflecting on the rigid ideological controls imposed on artistic expression in the late period, the book observes:

The various schools of serious writing, as the Vaplite, stood out against this regimentation and ably defended their position, but that position was indefensible in the face of political pressure...

What It's Really About

The book explores the systemic tension between genuine national self-determination and the centralizing imperatives of Russian-dominated totalitarianism. At its core, it investigates how ideological movements can be co-opted and subverted by imperial power structures. Manning questions whether a smaller nation can ever truly maintain political and cultural sovereignty alongside a powerful, expansionist neighbor that views local autonomy as treason. It examines the tragedy of national communists who believed in revolutionary ideals only to be crushed by the machinery they helped build. Ultimately, the work is a profound examination of how language, culture, agriculture, and historical memory are systematically targeted during state-sponsored subjugation.

Why Read It Today

Readers fascinated by Eastern European history, political science, and the mechanics of state control will find this book indispensable. Reading it feels like walking through a meticulous, sobering archive of primary documents and firsthand testimonies, laying bare the grim mechanics of mid-twentieth-century totalitarianism. What stays with you long after finishing is the chilling realization of how administrative decrees, fabricated medical records, and manufactured famines can erase an entire society's existence.

The book does present certain difficulties for the modern reader. Written in mid-century academic prose, it contains dense historical details, numerous political acronyms, and specialized references to various communist factions, literary groups, and ecclesiastical schisms that require close, patient attention. Furthermore, its period terminology and detailed chronological cataloging demand stamina from those unfamiliar with the geopolitical landscape of the era. Yet, despite these hurdles, the work rewards persistence with an unshakeable understanding of the historical roots governing modern Ukrainian resilience against imperial aggression.